itg  af 


Received...    ^^^        ..I&70, 


mi* 


OVER  1000  MISTAKES  CORRECTED. 

LIVE    AO    LEARN: 

A  GUIDE  FOR  ALL,  WHO  WISH  TO 

SPEAK  AND  WHITE  CORRECTLY: 

PARTICULARLY  INTENDED  AS  /  /   / 

A  BOOK  OF  REFERENCE  FOR  THE  SOLUTION  OF  DIFFICULTIES 
CONNECTED  WITH 

GRAMMAR,  COMPOSITION,  PUNCTUATION, 

ETC.,  ETC. 

WITH  EXPLANATIONS  OF  LATIN  AND  FRENCH  WORDS  AND  PHRASE& 

OF  FREQUENT  OCCURRENCE  IN  NEWSPAPERS,  REVIEWS, 

PERIODICALS,  AND  BOOKS  IN  GENERAL  ; 

CONTAINING  EXAMPLES  OF 

ONK    THOUSAND    MISTAKES 

OF  DAILY  OCCURRENCE, 
IN  SPEAKING,  WRITING,  AND  PRONUNCIATION  ; 


TOGHTHBR  WITH 


DETAILED  INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  WRITING  FOR  THE  PRESS,  AND  FORMS 

OF  ARTICLES  IN  THE  VARIOUS  DEPARTMENTS  OF 

NEWSPAPER  LITERATURE. 


"  There  are  hundreds  of  persons,  engaged  in  professional  and  commer- 
cial pursuits,  who  are  sensible  of  their  deficiencies  on  many  points  con- 
nected with  the  grammar  of  their  own  tongue,  and  who,  by  self-tuition, 
are  anxious  to  correct  such   deficiencies,  and  to  acquire  the  means  of 
speaking  and  writing,  if  not  with  elegance,  at  any  rate  with  a  due  regard 
to  grammatical  accuracy, — to  whom  this  little  work  is  INDISPENSABLE." 
u  "What  more  important  than  a  correct  knowledge  of  one's  own 
tongue?  "— CONDORCET. 


NEW    YO  EK : 
OARRJUTT    &     COMPANY, 

NO    18  ANN  STREET. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1856,  by 
GARRETT    &    CO., 

In  the  Clerk's  Office'of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the 
Southern  District  of  New  York. 


PREFACE. 

OF  the  practical  value  of  a  pocket  manual,  to 
which  we  can  refer  in  cases  of  grammatical  embar- 
rassment, as  well  as  for  literary  information  and 
suggestions,  there  can  be  no  doubt.  In  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  present  volume  it  has  been  the  aim  of 
the  author  to  make  such  a  work.  Whether  he  has 
succeeded,  is  a  question  to  be  decided  by  the  reader. 

There  are  hundreds  of  persons  engaged  in  profes- 
sional and  commercial  pursuits*,  who  are  sensible  of 
their  t  deficiencies  on  many  points  connected  with 
the  grammar  of  their  own  tongue,  and  who,  by  self- 
tuition,  are  anxious  to  correct  such  deficiencies,  and 
to  acquire  the  means  of  writing  and  speaking,  if  not 
with  elegance,  at  any  rate  with  a  due  regard  to 
grammatical  accuracy. 

For  such  persons  this  little  volume  is  more  par- 
ticularly intended,  though  it  is  believed  that  few 
can  peruse  it  without  deriving  advantage,  and  also 
acquiring  some  additional  knowledge. 

It  is  a  conventional,  and,  unfortunately,  a  widely- 
spread  error,  that  correctness  in  speaking  and  writ- 
ing comes  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  especially  when 
the  individual  has  received  what  is  called  "  a  CLASS- 


4  PREFACE. 

ICAL  education." — A  glance  at  the  article  on  "  In- 
stances of  False  Syntax,  Errors,  &c.,  &c.,  (see  page 
73,)  occurring  in  the  writings  of  authors  of  emi- 
nence," [men  educated  at  the  Public  Schools  and 
Universities,]  will  at  once  prove  the  fallacy  of  this 
impression. 

Our  little  volume  will  also  be  found  useful  by 
those  who  desire  to  write  for  the  press.  To  all  such, 
the  forms  of  department  articles  will  prove  both  in- 
teresting and  valuable.  A  careful  examination  of 
these  forms  will  enable  the  student  to  obtain  an  in- 
telligent understanding  of  the  various  departments 
in  newspaper  literature,  and  also  furnish  him  with 
materials  for  deciding  for  which  to  qualify  himself 
— editing  or  reporting. 


CONTENTS. 


PACT? 

1.  Rules  for  the  Use  of  Capitals  and  Italics  1 

2.  Division  of  Words  into  Syllables   .            .  5 

3.  On  the  Hyphen             .  .      6 

4.  Rules  for  Spelling              ....  8 

5.  On  Nouns          .            .            .            .            .  12 

6.  On  Gender             .             .            ...            .  13 

7.  On  the  Formation  of  the  Plural  Number  of  Nouns  21 

8.  On  the  Verb 28 

9.  On  the  Participle   .....  29 

10.  On  Shall  and  Will        ."  .  .  .33 

11.  On  Irregular  Verbs  ....  34 

12.  Corresponding  Conjunctions    .  .  .  .41 

13.  Miscellaneous  Observations  on  Points  that  occasion 

difficulty  to  the  Student          ...  42 

On  the  letters  w  and  y:  see  No.  1. 
On  a  and  an :  see  Nos.  2,  10,  and  13. 
On  the  possessive  case  ;  see  No.  3. 
On  the  degrees  of  comparison  :   see  Nos.  4, 14, 

18,  19,  38,  40,  and  64. 
On  the  pronouns  you,  thou,  your,  thy,  &c.  :  see 

Nos.  6,  7,  and  80. 
On  the  pronouns  who,  that,  which,  and  what :  see 

Nos.  21,  22,  23,  24,  25,  30,  31,  34,  and  88. 
On  each,  every,  either,  and  neither :  see  Nos.  28, 

29,  37,  and  46. 

On  the  participles  :  see  Nos.  44,  48,  50,  and  51. 
On  the  omission  of  the  sign  to  before  certain 

verbs  :  see  No.  52. 

On  negatives  ;  see  Nos.  55,  56,  57,  and  58. 
On  the  right  position  of  adverbs :  see  Nos.  59 

and  60. 

(5) 


VI  CONTENTS. 

FAGB 

Miscellaneous  Observations,  &c.  (cont.) — 

On  idiomatic  expressions  :  see  Nos.  42,  and  79. 

On  the  expressions  two  first,  two  last,  &c. :  see 
No.  85. 

On  each  other  and  one  another :  see  No.  92. 

On  this  and  that  in  the  sense  of  former  and  latter: 
see  No.  104. 

On  other  important  peculiarities  see  the  remain- 
ing Numbers. 

14.  Hints  on  the  current  improprieties  of  expression  in 

writing  and  speaking,  with  rules  for  their  correc- 
tion, .  .  .  .  .  .77 

15.  On  Composition  ....  96 

16.  On  Punctuation  .....  108 

17.  Figures  of  Speech  .  .  .121 

18.  Explanation  of  Latin  words  and  phrases  of  frequent 

occurrence   in  newspapers,   reviews,  periodicals, 
and  books  in  general          ....  129 

19.  Explanation  of  French  words  and  phrases  of  frequent 

occurrence  in  newspapers,  reviews,  periodicals, 
and  books  in  general          ....  141 

20.  On  Abbreviations    .....        145 

21.  Over  500  mistakes  of  daily  occurrence,  in  speaking, 

writing  and  pronunciation,  corrected        .  .  149 

22.  Rhetorical  Composition,      .  .  .  .194 

23.  On  Composition  for  the  Press,  with  Forms  of  Arti- 

cles in  the  various  departments  of    Newspaper 
Literature,    .  .  .  .  .  .200 


A  GUIDE  FOR  ALL, 

WHO  WISH  TO 

SPEAK  AND  WRITE  CORRECTLY, 


11ULES  FOB  THE  USE  OF  CAPITALS  AND 

ITALICS. 

THE  following  classes  of  words  should  commence 
with  capital  letters : 

1.  The  first  word  of  a  sentence. 

2.  The  first  word  of  every  line  in  poetry. 

3.  The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation. 
Examples: — And    Nathan   said    unto    David, 

"  Thou  art   the  man.'; — Remember  this  ancient 

maxim  :  "Know  thyself.'7 

An  indirect  quotation  may  be  introduced  without 
the  use  of  a  capital. 

Example  : — It  is  recorded  of  him,  who  "  spake 

three  thousand  proverbs,"  that  "his  songs  were  a 

thousand  and  five." 

4.  Words  used  as  names  of  the  Deity. 
Examples : — "  Our  Father,  who  art  in  Heaven." 

— "  Remember  now  thy  Creator,  in  the  days  of 
thy  youth." 

"And  chiefly  thou,  0  Spirit,  that  dost  prefer. 
Before  all  temples,  the  upright  heart  and  pure." 

Milton. 
(7) 


8  RULES    FOR    THE    USE    OF 

5    Proper  names  and  honorary  titles. 

Examples: — "The  City  of  London" — "The 
Honorable  Henry  Erskine :" — "  Sir  Matthew  Hale" 

6.  Common  nouns  personified. 

Examples  : — "  If  Pain  comes  into  a  heart,  he 
is  quickly  followed  by  Pleasure  ;  and  if  Pleasure 
enters,  you  may  be  sure  that  Pain  is  not  far  off." 
— Addison. 

"  And  Discipline  at  length, 

O'erlooked  and  unemployed,  fell  sick  and  died; 

Then  Study  languished,  Emulation  slept, 

And  Virtue  fled." — Cowper. 

7.  Every  important  word  in  a  phrase  used  as  a 
title. 

Examples: — "Hume's  History  of  England  :" — 
"  Virtue  the  only  true  Source  of  Nobility :" — "  The 
Board  of.  Trade" — "  The  French  Revolution" 

The  pronoun  J  and  the  interjection  O  should  also  be 

written  in  capitals. 

Examples: — "Mast  I  endure  all  this?" — 
"Come  forth,  O  ye  children  of  gladness,  come!" 

Most  adjectives,  derived  from  proper  names,  should 

commence  with  capitals. 

Examples  : — "  A  Grecian  education  was  consi- 
dered necessary  to  form  the  Roman  orator,  poet, 
or  artist."  — "  The  Copernican  system  is  that 
which  is  held  to  be  the  true  system  of  the  world." 

A  personal  pronoun  referring  to  the  Deity,  is  often 

commenced  with  a  capital. 

Examples: — "All  that  we  possess  is  God's,  and 
we  are  under  obligation  to  use  it  all  as  He  wills." 


CAPITALS   AND   ITALICS.  9 

"  Will  He  not  hear  tliee 

Who  the  young  ravens  heareth  from  their  nest  1 
Will  He  not  guard  thy  rest  ?" — Hemans. 
There  are  also  numerous  cases  in  which  words 
may  commence  either  with  capitals  or  small  letters, 
according  to  the  taste  of  the  writer. 

Short  detached  pieces  of  writing  are  often  com- 
posed entirely  of  capitals.  [For  examples,  see  title- 
pages,  heads  of  chapters  and  sections,  monumental 
inscriptions,  cards,  &c.] 

Italic  letters  are  those  which  stand  inclining, 
This  sentence  is  printed  in  Italics. 

When  an  author  wishes  to  distinguish  any  parti- 
cular word  or  phrase  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  or  for 
any  other  purpose,  it  is  generally  printed  in  Italics. 
Examples  : — "  If  we  regard    enunciation  and 
pronunciation  as  the  mechanical  part  of  elocution 
— intiection,  emphasis,  and  pausing,  may  be  desig- 
nated as  its  intellectual  part." — Russell.     "  To  be 
perfectly  polite,  one  must  have  great  presence  of 
mind,  with  a  delicate  and  quick  sense  of  propriety." 
Mrs.  Chapone. 

Sentences  of  special  importance  are  often  printed 
entirely  in  Italics. 

When  a  particular  word,  phrase,  or  sentence  is 
designed  to  be  made  still  more  conspicuous  than  it 
would  be,  if  expressed  in  Italics,  it  is  printed  in 
small  capitals. 

Examples : — "  OBSERVATION  and  EXPERIMENT 
constitute  the  basis  of  the  science  of  Mechanics.7' 
— "  To  the  numerous  class  of  young  men  who  are 
mainly  dependent  on  their  own  resources  for  know- 


10  RULES    FOR    THE    USE    OF 

ledge,  or  respectability,  one  of  tlie  most  important 
councils  of  wisdom,  which  can  be  addressed,  is 
STUDY  YOUR  OWN  CHARACTER  AND  PROSPECTS." 
When  a  word  or  phrase  in  an  Italic  sentence  is  to 
be  distinguished  from  the  rest,  it  should  be  printed 
in  Roman  letters.     If  it  is  particularly  important,  it 
may  be  expressed  in  capitals. 

Examples  : — *'  The,  grand  clue  to  all  syntactical 
parsing  is  the  sense." — "  HYDROSTATICS  is  that 
branch  of  Natural  Philosophy  which  treats  of  the 
mechanical  properties  and  agencies  of  LIQUIDS." — 
"To  find  the  surface  of  a  REGULAR  SOLID." 
When  a  word  is  used  merely  as  a  word,  it  should 
generally  be  printed  in  Italics. 

Examples : — "  The    adjective    same    is    often 
used  as  a  substitute." — "  Who  is  applied  to  per- 
sons, and  which  to  animals  and  inanimate  things." 
Words  and  phrases  introduced  into  English  writ- 
ings from  foreign  languages,  are  generally  expressed 
in  Italics. 

Example: — "All  adjournment  sine  die  is  an 
adjournment  without  fixing  the  time  for  resuming 
business.'7 

In  the  common  English  version  of  the  Scriptures. 
Italics  are  used  to  indicate  those  words,  which  are 
not  found  in  the  original. 

Examples : — "After  two  days  was  the  feast  ofilie 
passover :"  in  the  original,  "After  two  days  was 
the  passover.'7 — "  There  are  yet  four  months,  and 
then  cometh  the  harvest :" — in  the  original, "  There 
are  yet  four  months,  and  the  harvest  cometh." 


CAPITALS    AND    ITALICS.  11 

In  writing,  it  is  customary  to  underline  such  words 
as  would  be  italicised  in  printing. 

Example. 
u  Jb  (^006  n/cb  6-eew/  io^6u>le<    ei^ew/  ofcet,  tfve 


of 


out/ 


DIVISION  OF  WORDS  INTO  SYLLABLES. 

As  a  general  principle,  it  may  be  observed  that 
the  syllables  of  a  word  are  those  divisions  which 
are  made  in  a  correct  pronunciation  of  it. 

The  following  are,  perhaps,  the  only  definite 
rules,  that  can  be  given  on  this  subject. 

1.  Two  consonants  forming  but  one  sound,  as  ng, 
ck,  tli,  sh,  pk,  ivk,  are  never  separated.      Thus,  we 
write  churck-es,  wor-tliy,  feath-er,  ring-ing,  a-wJiile. 

2.  The  terminations  cean,  dan,  ceous,  cious,  cial, 
tian,  lion,  tious,  tial,  geon,  gian,  geous,  gious,  sion, 
and  sicr,  are  seldom  divided.     Thus,  we  write,  na- 
tion, o-cean,  capa-cions  pi-geon,  cap-tious. 

3.  Compound  words  are  commonly  separated  into 
the  simple  words,  of  which  they  are  composed;  as, 
care-less,  lee-hive,  rail-road. 

4.  The  termination  ed,  though  not  always  pro- 
nounced separately,  is  regarded  in  writing  as  a  dis- 
tinct syllable ;  as  lov-ed,  burn-ed. 

5.  Derivative    and     grammatical     terminations 
should  generally  be  separated  from  the  radical  word : 
as,  great-ly,  teach-er,  rush-est,  prov-est. 


12 


ON  THE  HYPHEN. 

The  Hyphen  [-]  is  used  at  the  end  of  a  line,  when 
the  whole  of  a  word  cannot  be  got  into  it,  and  shows 
that  the  rest  of  the  word  is  at  the  beginning  of  the 
following  line. 

Some  compound  words  are  connected  with  the 
hyphen,  others  without  it.  Writers  are  not  agreed 
on  the  subject  of  inserting  and  oinit-ting  the  hyphen. 
The  following  REMARKS  may  be  of  use  : — 

1.  When  each  of  two  contiguous  nouns  retains  its 
original  accent,  the  hyphen  is  not  used ;  as,  Master 
Luilder. 

2.  When  two  nouns  are  in  opposition,  and  each  is 
separately  applicable  to  the  person  or  thing  desig- 
nated, the  hyphen  is  not  used  ;  as  The  Lord  Chan- 
cellor, who  is  both  a  Loud  and  a  Chancellor. 

3.  When  the  first  noun  is  used  as  an  adjective, 
and  expresses  the  matter  or  substance,  of  which  the 
second  consists,  and  may  be  placed  after  it  with  of 
not  denoting  possession,  the  hyphen  is  not  used;  as, 
a  silk  gown,  a  cork  jacket;  that  is,  a  gown  of  silk, 
a  jacket  of  cork. 

When  the  first  noun  is  not  used  as  an  adjective, 
does  not  express  the  matter  or  substance  of  the 
second,  and  may  be  placed  after  it  with  ^  denoting 
possession,  or  wither,  belonging'  to,  &c.,  the  hyphen 
is  used :  as,  a  silk-mill,  a  mill  for  silk ;  a  cork-screw, 
a  screw  for  corks ;  a  horse-dealer,  a  dealer  in  horses ; 
a  kitchen-grate,  a  grate  for  a  kitchen. 

When  the  words  readily  coalesce,  are  easily  pro- 
nounced as  one,  have  long  been  associated  together 


ON    THE    HYPHEN.  13 

and  are  in.  frequent  use,  the  hyphen  is  often  omitted, 
and  both  nouns  are  printed  or  written  as  one ;  thus, 
Bookseller,  a  seller  of  books ;  Schoolmaster,  the 
master  of  a  school. 

The  necessity  of  attending  to  the  hyphen  will  be 
evident  from  the  following  examples  :  A  glass  house, 
a  tin  man,  an  iron  mould,  a  negro  merchant,  pro- 
nounced as  separate  words,  and  each  with  its  natural 
accent,  will  mean  a  house,  made  of  glass,  a  man  made  of 
tin,  a  mould  made  of  iron,  a  merchant,  who  is  a  negro; 
but  a  glass-house,  a  tin-man,  an  iron-mould,  a  negro- 
merchant,  taken  as  compound  nouns,  with  the  accent 
on  the  first  syllable,  will  mean  a  house  for  the  manu- 
facture of  glass,  a  man  who  works  or  deals  in  tin,  a 
mould  for  casting  iron,  or  a  mould  or  stain  caused  Ly 
the  rust  of  iron,  a  merchant,  who  buys  and  sells  negroes. 

It  would,  perhaps,  be  an  improvement  in  such 
cases,  to  use  a  hyphen  similar  to  that  which  is  used 
by  some  foreign  printers  [=],  as  this  would  enable 
the  student,  on  meeting  with  a  compound  word, 
printed  part  of  it  at  the  end  of  one  line,  and  part  at 
the  beginning  of  the  following  line,  to  know  whether 
the  words  should  be  connected  with  a  hyphen  or 
not.  If  they  should  be  connected  by  a  hyphen,  this 
one  =  would  be  used ;  if  not,  the  common  hyphen  -. 

4.  When  a  compound  noun  consists  of  an  adjective 
and  a  noun,  no  hyphen  is  used;  as,  High  Sheriff, 
Chief  Magistrate. 

When  the  adjective  and  its  noun  are  used  together 
as  a  kind  of  compound  adjective  to  another  noun,  a 
hyphen  is  inserted  between  the  two  former ;  thus, 
The  High- Church  doctrine. 


14  RULES    FOR    SPELLING. 

o.  When  an  adjective  or  adverb,  and  a  participle 
immediately  following,  are  used  together  as  a  kind 
of  compound  adjective,  merely  expressing  a  quality, 
without  reference  to  immediate  action,  and  precede 
the  noun  to  which  they  are  joined,  a  hyphen  is 
used ;  as,  A  quick-sailing  vessel ;  The  above-men 
tioned  circumstances. 

When  they  imply  immediate  action,  and  follow 
the  noun,  the  hyphen  is  not  used  ;  as,  The  ship 
quick  sailing  o'er  the  deep  [or,  Quick  sailing  o'er  the 
deep,  the  ship\  pursues  her  course.  The,  circum- 
stances above  mentioned. 


RULES  FOR  SPELLING. 

1.  Final  consonants  are  generally  single ;  as  in 
man,  book,  repeat. 

The  final  letters  in  add,  ebb,  odd,  jagg,  egg,  err, 
purr,  burr,  inn,  butt,  and  buzz,  are  exceptions  to  this 
rule.  We  must  also  except  f,  I,  and  s,  immediately 
preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  or  by  gu  or  qu,  and  a 
single  vowel.  Under  these  circumstances,  f,  and,  in 
monosyllables,  I  and  s,  are  doubled,  as  in  rebuff,  call, 
guess,  quill ;  except  in  as,  has,  was,  gas,  his,  is,  this, 
thus,  us,  yes,  is,  if,  of  and  its  compounds  hereof, 
whereof,  fyc.  Concerning  I  and  s  in  words  of  more 
than  one  syllable,  no  certain  rule  can  be  given. 

C  assumes  k  at  the  end  of  all  monosyllables,  ex- 
cept lac,  zinc,  and  arc. 

K  was  formerly  used  after  c,  in  many  words  of  more 
than  one  syllable ;  but  it  is  now  generally  omitted, 
except  in  some  few  words;  as,  attack,  hillock,  bullock. 


RULES    FOR    SPELLING.  15 

2.  Words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant, 
change  y  into  i  on  receiving  an  addition,*  unless 
this  addition  is  's,  or  a  syllable  beginning  with  i  ; 
as,  carry,  carries,  carrier  ;  fancy,  fancied,  fanciful ; 
— lady,  lady's  ;  carry,  carrying. 

3.  But  words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  vowel r 
generally  retain  the  y  on  taking  an  increase ;  as, 
boy,  boys,  boyish, 

EXCEPTIONS. — Paid,  laid,  lain,  saith,  said,  and 
most  of  their  compounds,  as,  unpaid,  mislaid,  are 
exceptions  to  this  rule. 

4.  Words  ending  in  silent  e,  generally  reject  the 
e,  before  an  additional   syllable  beginning  with  a 
vowel ;  as,  move,  movest,\  moving,  'movable. 

Exc.  1. — Words  ending  in  oe,  retain  the  final 
e  ;  as,  shoe,  shoeing  ;  hoe,  hoeing. 

Exc.  2. — When  c  is  preceded  by  c  or  g,  it  is 
retained  before  ous  and  able  ;  as,  courageous,  peace- 
able. 

Exc.  3 — The  e  is  retained  in  a  few  words  to 
prevent  ambiguity  ;  as  in  singeing,  to  distinguish 
it  from  singing ;  in  dyeing  [colouring],  to  distin- 
guish it  from  dying  [expiring]. 

Exc.  4. — Words  terminating   in    ee9  drop  the 

final  letter  only  when  the  addition  begins  with 

e;  &s,  see,  seer,  seeth  ;  flee,  fleest ;  agree,  agreed. 

Final  ie,  besides  dropping  e,  changes  i  into  y,  before 

an  additional  syllable  beginning  with  i;  as,  lie,  lying. 

0  The  2nd,  4th.  and  6th  rules  are  not  intended  to  include 
such  additions  as  form  compound  words. 

f  Maccst  is  formed  in  accordance  with  the  rule,  by  dropping 
the  e  in  move,  and  adding  est. 


16  RULES    FOR    SPELLING. 

5.  Words  ending  in  silent  e  generally  retain  e  on 
receiving  an  additional  syllable  beginning  with  a 
consonant ;  as,  large,  largely. 

Exc. — Dull/,  truly,  wholly,  awful,  judgment, 
abridgment,  aclcnowledgment,  and  argument,  are 
exceptions. 

Before^  and  ty,  e  is  sometimes  changed  into  i;  as, 

pure, purity,  purify. 

6.  Monosyllables  and  words  accented  on  the  last 
syllable,  ending  in  a  single  consonant  preceded  by 
a  single  vowel,  generally  double  the  final  consonant, 
on  taking  an  additional  syllable  beginning  with  a 
vowel ;  as,  tan,  tanner  ;  fulfil,  fulfilling. 

Exc.  1. — X  and  z  are  never  doubled;  and 
when  the  accent  is  shifted,  the  final  letter  re- 
mains single ;  as,  wax,  waxen  ;  confer,  conference. 
Excel  follows  the  general  rule ;  as  in  excellence. 

jExc.  2. — The  derivatives  of  gas  have  only  one 
s  ;  as,  gases,  gasify. 

When  a  diphthong  precedes  the  final  letter,  or  when 
the  accent  is  not  on  the  last  syllable,  the  consonant 
is  not  doubled,  on  assuming  an  additional  syllable; 
as,  boil,  boiling ;  visit,  visitor. 

Respecting  words  ending  in  I  and  p,  which  are  not 
accented  on  the  last  syllable,  usage  is  not  settled. 
In  many  words  these  letters  are  most  frequently 
doubled ;  as,  travel,  traveller,  worship,  worshipper. 

Many  words  ending  in  c  assume  k  on  taking  an 
additional  syllable  beginning  with  e,  i,  or  ?/  ;  as, 
frolic,  frolicked,  frolicking. 

7.  Words  ending  in  a  double  consonant  generally 


RULES    FOR    SPELLING.  17 

retain  both  consonants  on  receiving  an  addition  ;  as, 
call,  calls,  caller,  calling. 

Exc. — Some  words  ending  in  11  drop  one  I  on 
receiving  an  increase  beginning  with  a  consonant ; 
as ,  full,  fuln  ess,  fully . 

S.  Compound  words  are  usually  spelled  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  simple  words,  of  which  they  are 
composed ;  as,  here-after,  ice-7iouse. 

Exc. — An  c  is  dropped  in  wherever  ;  and  words 
ending  in  II  often  drop  one  I  in  composition ;  as, 
witk-al,  un-til,  al-ready. 

E  is  inserted  before  s,  in  forming  the  plural  of  nouns 
and  the  third  person  singular  of  verbs,  ending  in  ch 
soft,  sli,  s,  x,  z,  o,  or  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant ;  as, 
churclies,  wishes,  kisses,  cooes,  tflies. 

Exc. — Cameo,  embryo,  and  nouns  ending  in  io, 
form  the  plural  by  adding  s  alone.     In  the  fol- 
lowing words*e  is  commonly,  but  not  uniformly, 
omitted  :  —  Canto,    solo,   grotto,   junto,     quarto, 
octavo,  portico,  tyro,  zero,  and  a  few  others. 
Many  words  in  our  language  admit  of  two  or  more- 
different  modes  of  spelling ;  as,  connection,  connex- 
ion ;  inquire,  enquire  ;  negotiate,  negociate  ;  riband, 
ribband  ;  ribon,  ribbon  ;  chemistry,  cliymistry. 

In  such  cases,  the  prevailing  usage  is  to  be  learnt 
by  observing  the  practice  of  the  standard  authors 
of  the  present  day,  and  by  consulting  the  best  dic- 
tionaries. 

In  some  kinds  of  writing,  such  as  bills  and  inscrip- 
tions, symbols  are  often  used  to  represent  either 
whole  words  or  parts  of  words ;  as,  XII,  18,  29th, 


18  ON    NOUNS. 

&e.  But  in  literary  compositions,  elegant  usage 
generally  rejects  these,  except  in  giving  dates,  and 
the  several  divisions  of  a  subject. 


ON  NOUNS. 

A  noun  is  a  word  used  to  express  the  name  of  an 
object;  as,  Europe,  boy,  slate,  honor. 

Nouns  are  of  two  kinds  ; — -proper  and  common. 

A.  proper  noun  is  the  name  used  to  distinguish  an 
in&ividual  object  from  others  of  the  same  class;  as, 
Thomas,  Dublin,  Severn^jfltna,  August. 

A  common  noun  is  a  name  which  may  be  applied 
to  any  one  of  a  whole  class  of  objects ;  as,  desk, 
cottage,  village,  scholar. 

Common  nouns  embrace  also  the  particular  classes, 
termed  abstract,  verbal  or  participial,  and  collective. 

An  abstract  noun  is  the  name  of  a  quality  consid- 
ered apart  from  the  object  to  which  it  belongs;  as, 
hardness,  strength,  wisdom,  benevolence.  Thus,  in 
beautiful  flower,  the  quality  expressed  by  the  word 
beautiful,  when  considered  as  separated  from  the 
object  flower,  forms  the  abstract  noun  beauty. 

A  participial  noun  is  a  word  which  has  the  form 
of  a  participle,  and  performs  the  office  of  a  noun ;  as, 
"  They  could  not  avoid  submitting  to  this  influence." 

A  collective  noun,  or  noun  of  multitude,  is  a  name, 
that  denotes  a  collection  of  many  individuals ;  as, 
school,  floclc,  veoplc,  assembly. 


19 


ON  GENDER. 

Gender  is  the  distinction  of  objects  with  regard  to 
sex. 

There  are  three  genders  ; — the  masculine,  the 
feminine-)  and  the  neuter. 

Nouns,  which  denote  males,  are  of  the  masculine 
gender;  as,  man,  brother,  king, father. 

Nouns,  which  denote  females,  are  of  the  feminine 
gender ;  as,  woman,  sister,  queen,  mother. 

Nouns,  which  denote  objects  neither  male  nor  fe- 
male, are  of  the  neuter  gender ;  as,  rock,  loind,  paper, 
knowledge. 

Some  nouns  are  equally  applicable  to  both  sexes : 
as,  cousin,  friend,  neighbour,  parent,  person,  servant. 
The  gender  of  these  is  usually  determined  by  the 
context.  To  such  words  some  grammarians  have  ap- 
plied the  unnecessary  and  improper  term  common 
gender.  Murray  justjy  observes,  "  There  is  no  such 
gender  belonging  to  the  language.  The  business  of 
parsing  can  be  effectually  performed  without  having 
recourse  to  a  common  gender" — The  term  is  more 
useful,  and  less  liable  to  objection,  as  applied  to  the 
learned  languages ;  but  with  us  it  is  plainly  a  solecism. 

Nouns  of  the  masculine  or  feminine  gender  are 
frequently  used  in  a  general  sense,  including  both 
sexes;  as,  "And  with  thee  will  I  break  in  pieces 
the  horse  and  Ms  rider,'7  Jer.  li.  21.  "  Go  to  the 
ant,  thou  sluggard ;  consider  her  ways,  and  be  wise/1 
Prov.  vi.  6. 


20  ON    GENDER. 

When  we  speak  of  males  and  females  of  our  own 
species  without  regard  to  sex,  we  generally  employ 
a  term  in  the  masculine  gender ;  as,  "  Man  is  mor- 
tal ;"  "  The  authors  and  poets  of  the  age/' 

In  speaking  of  young  children,  and  of  animate  ob- 
jects, whose  sex  is  unknown,  we  often  employ  the 
neuter  pronoun  it;  as,  "  The  child  was  well,  when  I 
saw  it;"  "He  caught  the  bird,  but  it  soon  escaped 
from  him." 

In  the  English  language  the  gender  of  nouns  fol- 
lows the  order  of  nature ;  but  in  the  Greek,  Latin, 
and  German  tongues,  the  grammatical  genders  are 
frequently  assigned  without  regard  to  sex ;  while  in 
the  French,  Italian,  &c.,  which  have  no  neuter  gen- 
der, every  object  is,  of  necessity,  regarded  as  either 
masculine  or  feminine. 

By  a  figure  of  speech  called  Personification,  gen- 
der is  sometimes  attributed  to  objects  without  sex. 
Thus  the  sun,  time,  death,  &c.,  are  usually  consider- 
ed as  masculine ;  and  the  earth,  a  ship,  virtue,  &c.. 
are  commonly  characterised  a&  feminine. 

This  figurative  mode  of  expression,  by  which  we 
give  life  and  sex  to  things  inanimate,  contributes 
greatly  to  the  force  and  beauty  of  our  language, 
and  renders  it,  in  this  respect,  superior  to  the  po- 
lished languages  of  Greece  and  Rome. 

No  fixed  rule  can  be  given  to  determine,  in  all 
cases,  which  gender  should  be  assigned  to  inanimate 
objects  personified.  Those,  which  are  distinguished 
for  boldness  or  strength,  are  generally  regarded  as 
masculine ;  and  those,  which  are  distinguished  for 
beauty  or  timidity,  are  generally  characterised  as 


ON    GENDER.  21 

feminine.  Abstract  nouns,  and  the  names  of  ships, 
cities,  and  countries,  are  usually  considered  as  fe- 
minine. 

Examples: — "  They  arrived  too  late  to  save 
the  ship,  for  the  violent  current  had  set  lier  more 
and  more  upon  the  bank." — Irving.  "  Statesmen 
scoffed  at  Virtue,  and  she  avenged  herself  "by 
bringing  their  counsels  to  naught." — Russell. 
"  Earth,  with  her  thousand  voices,  praises  God.'7 

Coleridge. 

"  Where  rolls  the  Oregon,  and  hears  no  sound, 
Save  his  own  dashings." — Bryant. 

"  The  oak 
Shall  send  his  roots  abroad,  and    pierce    thy 

mould." — Bryant. 

"  Child  of  the  Sun,  refulgent  Summer  comes  : 
He  comes  attended  by  the  sultry  hours, 
And  ever-fanning  breezes,  on  his  way ; 
While,  from  his  ardent  looks,  the  turning  Spring 
Averts  her  blushful  face." — Thomson. 


ON  THE  FORMATION  OF  THE  PLURAL  NUMBER  OF 
NOUNS. 

The  plural  of  nouns  is  generally  formed  by  ad- 
ding s  or  es  to  the  singular. 

Words  ending  in  a  sound,  which  will  unite  with 
the  sound  of  s,  form  the  plural  by  adding  s  only ; 
as,  herd,  herds ;  tree,  trees. 

Words  ending  in  a  sound,  which  will  not  unite 
with  the  sound  of  s,  form  the  plural  by  adding  es  • 
as,  fox,  foxes ;  lash,  lashes. 


22  ON    THE    FORMATION    OF    THE 

"Words  ending  in  silent  e,  whose  last  sound  will 
not  combine  with  the  sound  of  s,  add  s  only  for  the 
plural ;  as,  rose,  roses ;  voice,  voices. 

Most  nouns  ending  in  o,  preceded  by  a  consonant, 
form  the  plural  by  the  addition  of  es;  as,  cargo,  car- 
goes; hero,  heroes;  but  the  following  nouns  are  com- 
monly written  in  the  plural  with  s  only  : — canto, 
folio,  grotto,  junto,  motto,  memento,  nuncio, punctilio, 
portico,  quarto,  octavo,  solo,  zero,  seraglio,  and  tyro. 
There  are  also  a  few  others,  with  respect  to  which, 
usage  is  not  uniform. 

Several  nouns  ending  in  forfe  change  their  ter- 
mination into  ves  in  the  plural ;  as,  leaf,  leaves;  life, 
lives ;  beef,  beeves ;  shelf,  shelves ;  knife,  knives. 
Others,  as,  chief,  dwarf,  Jive,  grief,  gulf,  handker- 
chief, hoof,  proof,  roof,  reproof,  safe,  scarf,  strife, 
surf,  turf,  and  most  of  those  ending  in  ff\  form  the 
plural  regularly ;  as,  gulf,  gulfs;  muff,  muffs.  Staff' 
has  staves  in  the  plural,  but  its  compounds  are  re- 
gular ;  as,  flagstaff,  flagstaff  s. 

Nouns  ending  in  y  after  a  consonant  form  the 
plural  by  changing  y  into  ies ;  as,  lady,  ladies.  But 
nouns  ending  in  y  after  a  vowel  form  the  plural  re- 
gularly ;  as,  day,  days. 

Many  words  ending  in  y  were  formerly  spelled 
with  ie  in  the  singular;  as,  glorie,  vanitie.  The 
termination  ie  in  the  singular  is  now  laid  aside  for  y, 
while  the  old  plural  termination  ies  is  retained ;  as, 
glory,  glories ;  vanity,  vanities. 

The  plurals  of  the  following  nouns  are  variously 
formed: — man,  men;  woman,  women;  child,  child- 
ren; ox,  oxen;  mouse,  mice;  tooth,  teeth;  goose,  geese;^ 


PLURAL    NUMBER    OF    NOUNS.  23 

foot,  feet;  brother,  brothers  [when  applied  to  persons 
of  the  same  family] ;  brother,  brethren  [when  applied 
to  persons  of  the  same  society  or  profession];  die, 
dies  [stamps  for  coining] ;  die,  dice  [small  cubes  for 
gaming] ;  genius,  genii  [aerial  spirits] ;  genius,  ge- 
niuses [men  of  genius] ;  pea,  pease  [the  species] ; 
pea,  2}cas  [the  seeds  as  distinct  objects] ;  penny -, 
pence  [in  computation] ;  penny,  pennies  [as  distinct 
pieces  of  coin]. 

Spoonful,  mouse-trap,  earner  a-obscur  a,  Are-Maria, 
and  other  similiar  compound  nouns  form  the  plural 
regularly ;  as,  spoonfuls,  mouse-traps,  camera-ob- 
scuras,  Ave- Marias.  But  words,  composed  of  an 
adjective  and  a  noun,  or  of  two  nouns  connected  by 
a  preposition,  generally  form  the  plural  by  adding  s 
to  the  first  words;  as,  court-martial,  courts-martial; 
knight -err  ant,  knights-errant;  aide-de-camp,  aides- 
de-camp;  cousin-merman,  cousins-german;  son-in-law, 
sons-in-law.  Letters  and  numeral  figures  are  gener- 
ally pluralised  by  adding  an  apostrophe  with  the 
letter  s;  as,  Twelve  a?s;  three  5's.  The  plural  of 
words,  considered  as  words  merely,  is  formed  in  the 
same  manner. 

Examples: — •'  I  busied  myself  in  crossing  my 
t's  and  dotting  my  i's  very  industriously." — Wil- 
lis. "The  first  or  leading  figures  change  from  9\? 
to  0V — Hutton.  "Who,  that  has  any  taste,  can 
endure  the  incessant,  quick  returns  of  the  also's, 
and  the  likewise's,  and  the  moreover's,  and  the 
koweve?*'s,  and  the  notwithstanding' s  ?" — Camp" 
bell's  "Philosophy  of  Rhetoric." 


24 


ON    THE    FORMATION    OF    THE 


Many  nouns  adopted  from  foreign  languages  re- 
tain their  original  plurals. 
Alumnus 
Arcanum 
Automaton 
Amanuensis 
Antithesis 
Analysis 
Axis 
Apex 
Appendix 
Basis 
Bean 
Bandit 
Criterion 
Crisis 
Calx 
Chrysalis 
Cherub 
Datum 
Desideratum 
Dogma 
Diaeresis 
Ellipsis 
Emphasis 
Ephcmeris 
Effluvium 
Encomium 
Erratum 
Focus 
Fungus 
Formula 


alumni 

arcana 

automata,  automatons 

amanuenses 

antitheses 

analyses 

axes 

apices,  apexes 

appendices,  appendixes 

bases 

beaux 

banditti,  bandits 

criteria,  criterions 

crises 

calces,  calxes 

chrysalides 

cherubim,  cherubs 

data 

desiderata 

dogmas,  dogmata 

diaereses 

ellipses 

emphases 

ephemerides 

effluvia 

encomiums,  encomia 

errata 

foci 

fungi,  funguses 

formulas,  formulae 


PLURAL  NUMBER  OF  NOUNS. 


Gymnasium 

gymnasia,  gymnasiums 

Genus 

genera 

Hypothesis 

hypotheses 

Ignis  fatuus 

ignes  fatui 

Index 

indices  [referring  to  alge- 

braic quantities] 

Index 

indexes  [pointers  or  tables 

of  contents] 

Lamina 

laminae 

Larva 

larvae 

Medium 

media,  mediums 

Memorandum 

memoranda,    memorand- 

ums 

Momentum 

momenta,  momentums 

Metamorphosis 

metamorphoses 

.Miasma 

miasmata 

Monsieur 

messieurs 

Nebula 

nebulae 

Oasis 

oases 

Phenomenon 

phenomena 

Parenthesis 

parentheses 

Phasis 

phases 

Badius 

radii 

Scholium 

scholia,  scholiums 

U  Stratum 

strata 

Stamen 

stamens,  stamina 

Stimulus 

stimuli 

Seraph 

seraphim,  seraphs 

Speculum 

specula 

Thesis 

theses 

Vortex 

vortices 

Some  nouns  have  the 

same  form  in  both  numbers  ; 

2 

26  ON    THE    FORMATION    OF    THE 

as,  deer,  sheep,  swine,  trout,  salmon,  congeries,  series, 
species,  means,  odds,  belloios;  —  ethics,  mathe?natics, 
metkaphysics,  pneumatics,  optics,  and  other  similiar 
names  of  sciences. 

There  are  also  several  nouns  of  number,  which  do 
not  commonly  vary  their  forms  in  the  plural ;  as, 
"  Six  dozen;"  "  Three  score  and  ten." 

The  words  horse,  foot,  and  infantry,  denoting  bo- 
dies of  soldiers,  are  singular  in  form,  but  plural  in 
signification.  Cavalry  is  often  used  in  the  same 
manner.  The  words  cannon,  sail,  and  head,  are 
also  frequently  employed  in  a  plural  sense. 

Examples : — "  Nelson  now  proceeded  to  his 
station  with  eight  sail  of  frigates  under  his  com- 
mand.'7— Southey.  "A  body  of  a  thousand  horse 
was  sent  forward  to  reconnoitre  the  city." — Ro-t 
bertson.  "  He  ordered  two  cannon  to  be  fired." 
— Irving. 

The  following  words,  though  sometimes  used  as 
singular  nouns,  are  more  properly  plural : — alms, 
amends,  pains,  riches,  wages. 

The  following  are  used  only  in  the  plural : — 

Annals  Drawers   [an  article  of 

Archives  dress] 

Ashes  Dregs  r 

Assets  Embers 

Billiards  Entrails 

Bitters  Goods 

Bowels  Hatches 

Breeches  Hose  [stockings] 

Clothes  Hysterics 

Calends  Ides 


PLURAL    NUMBER    OF    NOUNS.  27 

Literati  Pleiads 

Lees  Snuffers 

Letters  [literature]  Scissors 

Lungs  Shears 

Minutiae  Shamblers 

Manners  Tidings 

Morals  Tongs 

Nippers  Thanks 

Nones  Vespers 

Orgies  Vitals 

Pincers  Victuals 

Nouns,  denoting  objects,  which  do  not  admit  of 
plurality,  are  used  only  in  the  singular ;  as,  gold, 
silver,  wheat,  ivine,  flour,  industry,  pride,  wisdom. 

When,  however,  different  kinds  or  varieties  are 
spoken  of,  words  of  this  class  "sometimes  take  the 
plural,  form;  as,  "The  waters  of  Germany;" — "The 
wines  of  France."  The  different  species  or  classes 
are  here  signified,  and  not  a  number  of  individuals 
of  the  same  class. 

The  word  news  is  now  regarded  as  singular, 
though  it  was  formerly  used  in  both  numbers. 
Shakspeare  has  it  most  frequently  in  the  plural. 

Proper  names  are  sometimes  pluralised  like  other 
nouns :  as,  The  two  Scipios,  the  Howards,  the  John- 
sons; but  these  plural  names  are  not  used  to  desig- 
nate individuals,  and  may  with  more  propriety  be 
classed  with  common  nouns. 

In  forming  the  plural  of  a  proper  name  and  a 
title,  taken  as  one  complex  noun,  the  plural  termina- 
tion is  most  frequently  annexed  to  the  title  only : — 


28  ON    THE    VERB. 

Examples  : — •"  The  Misses  Vanhomrigh." — Edin- 
burgh Journal.  "  Messrs.  Percy ." — Southey. 

In  forming  the  plural  of  proper  names,  to  which 
titles  are  prefixed,  usage  is  still  unsettled.  While  a 
decided  majority  of  our  popular  writers  pluralise 
the  title  and  not  the  name,  as  the  "  Misses  Mor- 
gan," there  is  also  a  large  class  of  writers  equally 
reputable,  who  pluralise  the  name  and  not  the  title ; 
as,  "  The  Miss  Morgans." 

Examples  : — " The  Miss  Thomsons" — Fuller. 
"  The  two  Miss  Flamboroughs." — Goldsmith. 

Beside  the  two  forms  already  exhibited,  there  is 
still  another,  in  which  the  plural  termination  is  an- 
nexed to  both  the  name  and  the  title  ;  as,  "  The 
Misses  Morgans."  This  form,  though  not  very 
common,  is  not  entirely  destitute  of  authority. 

Examples  : — "  The  Messrs.  Wilsons." — Jones. 
"  The  two  Misses  Beauvoirs." — Blackwood. 

The  proper  names  of  nations,  societies,  groups  of 
islands,  and  chains  of  mountains,  are  generally  plu- 
ral ;  as,  The  French,  The  Moravians,  The  Azores, 
The  Alps,  The  Andes. 


ON  THE  VERB. 

A  Verb*  is  a  word,  which  expresses  an  assertion 
or  affirmation ;  as,  I  am  ;  I  teach  ;  I  am  taught. 
Verbs  are  divided  into  regular  and  irregular. 

*  The  term  verb  is  derived  from  the  Latin  verbum,  which 
signifies  a  word.  This  part  of  speech  is  so  called,  because  the 
verb  is  the  principal  word  in  the  sentence. 


ON    THE    PARTICIPLE.  29 

A  regular  verb  is  one,  which  forms  its  past  tense 
and  perfect  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  pre- 
sent ;  as,  present,  love  ;  past,  loved ;  perfect  parti- 
ciple, loved  ;  call,  called,  called. 

E/egular  verbs  terminating  in  silent  e  form  their 
past  tense  and  perfect  participle  by  the  addition  of 
d  only,  and  those  ending  in  any  other  letter,  by  the 
addition  of  ed. 

The  verbs  hear,  pay,  say  and  lay,  which  do  not 
end  in  e,  and  which  add  d  only  for  the  past  tense  and 
perfect  participle,  are  classed  with  irregular  verbs. 

An  irregular  verb  is  one,  which  does  not  form  its 
past  tense  and  perfect  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed 
to  the  present ;  as,  present,  see  ;  past,  saw  ;  perfect 
participle,  seen  ;  go,  went,  gone. 


ON  THE  PARTICIPLE. 

The  participle  is  a  mode  of  the  verb,  partaking 
of  the  properties  of  the  verb  and  the  adjectire  ;  as, 
seeing,  seen,  having  seen,  having  been  seen. 

Participles  may  be  classed  under  two  general  di- 
visions :  imperfect*  and  perfect. 

**  "The  distinguishing  characteristic  of  this  participle  is,  that 
it  denotes  an  unfinished  and  progressive  state  of  the  being, 
action,  or  passion ;  it  is  therefore  properly  denominated  the 
IMPERFECT  participle." — Brown. 

*  *  All  that  is  peculiar  to  the  participles  is,  that  the  one  sig- 
nifies &  perfect  and  the  other  an  imperfect  action." — Pickbourn.. 

11  The  most  unexceptionable  distinction  which  grammarians 
make  between  the  participles,  is,  that  the  one  points  to  the 
continuation  of  the  action,  passion,  or  state  denoted  by  the 
verb,  and  the  other  to  the  completion  of  it." — Murray. 
2* 


30  ON    THE     PARTICIPLE. 

An  imperfect  participle  denotes  the  continuance  of 
an  action  or  state  ;  as,  calling,  seeing,  being  seen. 

Imperfect  participles  relate  to  present,  past,  or 
future  time,  according  as  they  are  connected  with 
verbs  in  the  present,  past,  or  future  tense. 

A  perfect  participle  denotes  the  completion  of  an 
action  or  state ;  as,  called,  seen,  having  seen. 

Participles  are  also  divided  into  simple  and  com- 
pound. 

A  simple  participle  is  a  participle  that  consists  of 
only  one  word  ;  as,  doing,  done. 

A  compound  participle  is  a  participle  that  is  com- 
posed of  two  or  more  words ;  as,  being  seen,  having 
seen,  having  leen  seen.  Being  seen  is  a  compound  im- 
•perfect  participle  ;  having  seen  and  having  leen  seen 
are  compound  perfect  participles. 

Participles,  like  other  modifications  of  the  verb, 
have  a  transitive,  an  intransitive,  and  a  passive  use. 
Thus,  seeing  and  having  seen  are  transitive ;  being 
and  walking^  intransitive ;  seen  and  having  been  seen, 
passive. 

Participles  often  lose  their  verbal  character,  and 
become  adjectives;  as,  "Amoving  spectacle ;"  "A 
revised  edition."  They  are  then  called  participial 
adjectives. 

Participles  are  also  used  to  perform  the  office  of 
nouns ;  as,  "  They  could  not  avoid  submitting  to 
this  influence.''  When  used  in  this  manner,  they 
are  called  participial  nouns. 


ON    THE    PARTICIPLE.  31 

RULES    FOR   FORMING    PARTICIPLES    FROM   REGULAR 
VERBS.   ' 

The  Imperfect  participle  is  formed  by  adding  ing 
to  the  verb  ;  as,  call,  calling. 

The  Perfect  participle  is  formed  by  adding  d  to 
verbs  that  end  in  silent  e  ;  as,  love,  loved  ;  and  ed  to 
verbs  that  end  in  any  other  letter ;  as,  call,  called. 

But  Verbs  ending  in  silent  e,  on  assuming  ing, 
omit  the  e;  as,  love,  loving. 

Excerption  1.  Singeing,  swingeing,  and  dyeing, 

the  imperfect  participles  of  singe,  swinge,  and  dye, 

retain  the  e,  to   distinguish  them  from  singing, 

swinging,  and  dying,  the  participles  of  sing,  swing, 

and  die. 

Exception  2.    Verbs   ending  in  ie  omit  the  e, 

and  change  the  i  into  y  before  ing ;  as,  Tie,  tying. 

Verbs  of  one  syllable  ending  in  a  single  conso- 
nant, preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  [or  by  two  vow- 
els, if  the  first  is  u,,]  on  assuming  ing  or  ed,  double 
the  jinal  consonant ;  as,  Ship,  shipping,  shipped  ; 
Quit,  quitting,  quitted. 

Exceptions.  Suit,  suiting,  suited ;  bruit,  bruit- 
ing, bruited 

Verbs  ending  in  a  single  consonant,  preceded  by 
more  than  one  vowel  [unless  the  one  before  the  last 
be  u  or  w,]  do  not  double  the  Jinal  consonant,  on 
assuming  ing;  as,  Lead,  loading,  loaded ;  Swab, 
swabbing,  swabbed. 

Exception.    Recruit,  recruiting,  recruited. 

Verbs  of  more  than  one  syllable  ending  in  a  single 
consonant,  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  [or  by  two 


32  ON    THE    PARTICIPLE. 

vowels,  if  the  first  is  u  or  w,~]  and  having  the  accent 
on  the  last  syllable,  double  the  final  consonant,  on 
assuming  ing  or  ed ;  as,  Defer,  deferring,  deferred  ; 
Acquit,  acquitting,  acquitted. 

Verbs  of  more  than  one  syllable  ending  in  a  single 
consonant,  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  and  not  ac- 
cented on  the  last  syllable  do  NOT  double  the  final 
consonant  on  assuming  ing  ;  as,  Recover, -recovering; 
Quiet,  quieting. 

Note.  The  affix  from  quiet  seems  to  contradict  or 
form  an  exception  to  the  Rule,  as  the  final  conso- 
nant is  preceded  by  more  than  one  vowel ;  but  the 
Eule  applies  only  to  the  last  syllable,  which  con- 
tains no  more  than  one  vowel. 

Verbs  ending  in  y, preceded  by  ^consonant,  change 
the  y  into  i  on  assuming  cd  ;  as  Study,  studied. 

Verbs  ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  vowel,  on  assum- 
ing cd,  do  not  change  the  y  ;  as,  Journey,  journeyed. 

Verbs  ending  in  ee,  omit  the  latter  e,  on  assuming 
ed;  as,  agree,  agreed;  fee,  feed. 

Verbs  ending  in  c  assume  k  before  ing  and  ed; 
as,  Frolic,  frolicking,  frolicked  ;  Mimic,  mimicking, 
mimicked  ;  Traffic,  trafficking,  trafficked. 

Shoe  makes  shoeing ;  Hoe,  hoeing,  hoed;  Eye, 
eying,  eyed. 

The  following  words  ought  not  to  double  the  final 
consonant  when  a  termination  is  added  : 

Apparel,  barrel,  benefit,  bias,  bigot,  billet,  buffet, 
cancel,  carol,  cavil,  channel,  counsel,  cudgel,  dial,  dri- 
vel, duel,  equal,  fillet,  gallop,  gambol,  gibbet,  gossip, 
gravel,  grovel,  handsel,  jewel,  kennel,  kidnap,  level, 
hbel,  limit,  marshal,  marvel,  model,  parallel,  parcel, 


ON  "SHALL"  AND  "WILL."  33 

pencil,  pommel,   quarrel,  revel,   rival,   rivet,   shovel, 
shrivel,  snivel,  trammel,  travel,  wainscot  and  worship* 


ON  "SHALL7'  AND  "  WILL." 

In  affirmative  sentences,  sliall,  in  the  first  person, 
simply  foretells  ;  as,  "  I  shall  write."  In  the  sec- 
ond and  third  persons,  sliall  is  used  potentially,  de- 
noting a  promise,  command,  or  determination;  as, 
"  You  shall  be  rewarded  ;"  "  Thou  shalt  not  kill ;" 
"  He  shall  be  punished."  Will,  in  the  first  person, 
is  used  potentially,  denoting  promise  or  determina- 
tion ;  as,  "  I  will  go  at  all  hazards."  In  the  sec- 
ond and  third  persons,  will  simply  foretells ;  as 
"You  will  soon  be  there;"  "He  will  expect  you." 

In  interrogative  sentences,  shall,  in  the  first  per- 
son, may  either  be  used  potentially  to  inquire  the 
will  of  the  person  addressed,  as,  "  Shall  I  bring  you 
another  book  ?"  or  it  may  simply  ask  whether  a 
certain  event  will  occur  ;  as,  "  Shall  I  arrive  in  time 
for  the  train  ?"  When  shall  is  used  interrogatively 
in  the  second  person,  it  simply  denotes  futurity ; 
as,  "  Shall  you  be  in  Edinburgh  next  week?"  Shall, 
employed  interrogatively  in  the  third  person,  has  a 
potential  signification,  and  is  used  to  inquire  the 
will  of  the  person  addressed  ;  as,  "  Shall  John  order 
the  carriage  ?"  Will,  used  interrogatively  in  the 
second  person,  is  potential  in  its  signification  ;  as, 
"  Will  you  go  1"  Will  may  be  used  interrogatively 
in  the  third  person,  to  denote  mere  futurity  ;  as, 
"  Will  the  boat  leave  to-day  1"  Or  it  may  have  a 
potential  signification,  inquiring  the  will  of  the  per- 


34  ON     IRREGULAR     VERBS. 

son  spoken  of;  as,  "  Will  he  hazard  his  life  for  the 
safety  of  his  friend  ?" 

In  the  subjunctive  mood,  shall,  in  all  the  persons, 
denotes  mere  futurity ;  as,  "  If  thy  brother  shall 
trespass  against  thee,  go  and  tell  him  his  fault." 
Will,  on  the  contrary,  is  potential  in  its  significa- 
tion, having  respect  to  the  will  of  the  agent  or  sub- 
ject ;  as,  "  If  he  will  strive  to  improve,  he  shall  be 
duly  rewarded." 


ON  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

The  following  list  comprises  nearly  all  the  simple 
irregular  verbs  in  our  language. 

When  more  forms  than  one  are  used  in  the  past 
tense,  or  perfect  participle,  that  which  stands  first 
is  to  be  preferred. 

Compound  verbs  [except  welcome  and  bcJiavc, 
which  are  regular]  are  conjugated  like  the  simple 
verbs,  from  which  they  are  formed  ;  &$,  foresee,  fore- 
saw, foreseen. 

LIST    OF    IRREGULAR   VERBS. 

Present.  Past  Perf.  Part. 

Abide  Abode  Abode 

Ain  Was  Been 

Awake  Awoke,  Awaked  Awaked 

Bear  Bore  Born 

[to  bring  forth] 

Bear,jfor-  Bore  Borne 

[to  sustain] 

Beat  Beat  Beaten,  Beat 

Begin  Began  Begun 


ON     IRREGULAR     VERBS. 


35 


Present. 
Bend,  un- 
Bereave 
Beseech 


Past.  Perf.  Part. 

Bent,  Bended.      Bent,  Bended 
Bereft,  Bereaved  Bereft,  Bereaved 


Bind,  un-  re- 

Bite 

Bleed 

Blow 

Break 

Breed 

Bring 

Build,  re-  up- 

Burst 

Buy 

Cast 

Catch 

Chide  Chid 

Choose  Chose 

Cleave[to  adherejCleaved 

Cleave  [to  split]  Clave,  Cleft 

Cling  Clung 

Clothe 

Come,  be-  over- 

Cost 


Besought 

Bade,  Bid 

Bound 

Bit 

Bled 

Blew 

Broke 

Bred 

Brought 

Built,  Builded 

Burst 

Bought 

Cast 


Besought 

Bid 

Bound 

Bitten,  Bit 

Bled 

Blown 

Broken 

Bred 

Brought 

Built,  Builded 

Burst 

Bought 

Cast 


Creep 
Crow 
Cut 
Dare* 

[to  venture] 
Deal 


Caught,  Catched  Caught,  Catched 

Chid 

Chosen 

Cleaved 

Cleft 

Clung 

Clothed  Clothed 

Came  Come 

Cost  Cost 

Crept  Crept 

Crew,  Crowed      Crowed 
Cut  Cut 

Dared,  Durst       Dared 


Dealt 


Dealt 


*Dare<  to  challenge,  is  regular. 


36 


IRREGULAR     VERBS. 


Pres. 
Dig 
Do, 

Past. 
Dug 
Did 

Perf.  Part. 
Dug 
Done 

un-,  mis-,  over- 

Draw,  with" 

Drew 

Drawn 

Drink 

Drank 

Drunk 

Drive 

Drove 

Driven 

Dwell 

Dwelt,  Dwelled 

Dwelt,  Dwelled 

Eat 

Ate 

Eaten 

Fall,  be- 

Fell 

Fallen 

Feed 

Fed 

Fed 

Feel 

Felt 

Felt 

Fight 
Find 

Fought 
Found 

Fought 
Found 

Flee 

Fled 

Fled 

Fly 

Fling 
Forsake 

Flew 
Flung 
Forsook 

Flown 
Flung 
Forsaken 

Freeze 

Froze 

Frozen 

Get,  be,  for- 
Gild 

Got 
Gilt,  Gilded 

Got 
Gilt,  Gilded 

Gird, 

Girt,  Girded 

Girt,  Girded 

be-,  un-,  en- 

Give,yb;'-,  mis- 

Gave 

Given 

Go,  for-,  under- 
Grave,  eft- 

Went 
Graved 

Gone 
Graved 

Grind 

Ground 

Ground 

Grow 

Grew 

Grown 

Have 

Had 

Had 

Hang* 

Hung 

Hung 

*  Hang,  to  take  away  life  "by  hanging,  is  regular  ;  as,  ' 
das  departed,  and  went  and  hanged  himself. " 


Jo- 


ON     IRREGULAR     VERBS. 


37 


Pres. 

Past. 

Perf.  Part. 

Heave* 

Heaved,  Hove 

Heaved,  Hoven 

Hear,  over- 

Heard 

Heard 

Hew 

Hewed 

Hewn,  Hewed 

Hide 

Hid 

Hidden,  Hid 

Hit 

Hit 

Hit 

Hold, 

Held 

Held 

be-,  with-,  up- 

Hurt 

Hurt 

Hurt 

Keep 

Kept 

Kept 

Kneel 

Knelt 

Knelt 

Knit 

Knit,  Knitted 

Knit,  Knitted 

Know,/0rc- 

Knew 

Known 

Lade 

Laded 

Laded 

Load,  un-,  over- 

Loaded 

Loaded 

Lief 

Lay 

Lain 

[to  lie  down] 

Lay 

Laid 

Laid 

[to  place],  in- 

Lead,  mis- 

Led 

Led 

Leave 

Left 

Left 

Lend 

Lent 

Lent 

Let 

Let 

Let 

Light 

Lighted,  Lit 

Lighted,  Lit 

Lose 

Lost 

Lost 

Make 

Made 

Made 

Mean 

Meant,  Meaned 

Meant,  Meaned 

Meet 

Met 

Met 

Mow 

Mowed 

Mown,  Mowed 

0  The  irregular  past  tense  and  perfect  participle  of  this 
verb  are  employed  in  sea  language  ;  but  the  latter  rarely, 
f  Lie,  to  tell  a  falsehood,  is  regular. 
3 


38 


ON     IRREGULAR     VERBS. 


Pres.                      Past. 

Per/.  Part. 

Pay,  re-                 Paid 

Paid 

Pen  [to  enclose]*  Penned,  Pent 

Penned,  Pen 

Put                        Put 

Put 

Quit                       Quitted,  Quit 

Quit,  Quitted 

Read                     Read 

Read 

Rend                     Rent 

Rent 

Rid                        Rid 

Rid 

Ride                      Rode 

Ridden 

Ring                      Rang,  Rung 

Rung 

Rise,  «-                 Rose 

Risen 

Rive                      Rived 

Riven 

Run,  out-              Ran 

Run 

Saw                       Sawed 

Saw,  Sawed 

Say,  un-,  gain-     Said 

Said 

See,jfore-              Saw 

Seen 

Seek                      Sought 

Sought 

Sell                       Sold 

Sold 

Seethe                   Seethed,  Sod 

Seethed 

Send                     Sent 

Sent 

Set,  be-                 Set 

Set 

Sit                         Sat 

Sat 

Shake                    Shook 

Shaken 

Shed                     Shed 

Shed 

Shine                     Shone 

Shone 

Shoe                      Shod 

Shod 

Shoot,  over-          Shot 

Shot 

Shew  or  Show     Shewed  ^Showed  Shewn  or  Shown 

Shred                     Shred 

Shred 

Shrink                   Shrunk 

Shrunk 

Pen,  to  write,  is  regular. 


ON    IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


39 


Pres. 

Past. 

Perf.  Part. 

Shut 

Shut 

Shut 

Sing 

Sang,  Sung, 

Sung 

Sink 

Sank,  Sunk 

Sunk 

Slay 

Slew 

Slain 

Sleep 

Slept 

Slept 

Slide 

Slid 

Slid 

Sling 

Slung 

Slung 

Slink 

Slunk 

Slunk 

Slit 

Slit 

Slit 

Smite 

Smote 

Smitten 

Sow 

Sowed 

Sown,  Sowed 

Speak,  be- 

Spoke 

Spoken 

Speed 

Sped 

Sped 

Spend,  mis- 

Spent 

Spent 

Spill 

Spilt,  Spilled 

Spilt,  Spilled 

Spin 

Spun 

Spun 

Spit* 

Spit 

Spit 

Split 

Split 

Split 

Spread,  over-, 

be-  Spread 

Spread 

Spring 

Sprang,  Sprung 

Sprung 

Stand,-z0^,-w/ 

ider-Stood. 

Stood 

Steal 

Stole 

Stolen 

Stick 

Stuck 

Stuck 

Sting 

Stung 

Stung 

Stink 

Stank,  Stunk 

Stunk 

Stride,  be- 

Strode 

Stridden 

Strike 

Struck 

Struck 

String 

Strung 

Strung 

Strive 

Strove 

Striven 

*  Spit,  to  put  on  a  spit,  is  regular. 


40 


ON    IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


Prcs.  Past.  -  Perf.  Past. 

Strowor  Strew,  fo-Strowed,Strewed  Strown,  Strewed 

Strewn,  Strewed 
Swear,  for-  Swore 

Sweat  Sweated 

Sweep  Swept 

Swell  Swelled 

Swim  Swam,  Swum 

Swing  Swung 

Take,  mis-,  under-  Took 

be-,  re-,  over-, 
Teach,  un-,  mis-    Taught 
Tear  Tore 

Tell,  fore-  Told 

Think,  be-  Thought 

Thrive 


Sworn 

Sweated 

Swept 

Swelled,SwolIen 

Swum 

Swung 

Taken 

Taught 
Torn 
Told 
Thought 


Throve,  Thrived  ThrivenThrived 
Thrown 
Thrust 
Trodden 
Worn 
Woven 
Wept 
Won 
Wound 
Wrung 
Written 


Obs.  When  the  past  tense  is  a  monosyllable  not 
ending  in  a  single  vowel,  the  second  person  singular 
of  the  solemn  style  is  formed  by  the  addition  of  est; 
as,  heardest,  fleddcst,  lookest.  Hadst,  wast,  saidst9 
and  didst,  are  exceptions. 


Throw,  over- 

Threw 

Thrust 

Thrust 

Tread,  re- 

Trod 

Wear 

Wore 

Weave,  un- 

Wove 

Weep 

Wept 

Win 

Won 

Wind,  un- 

Wound 

Wring 
Write 

Wrung 
Wrote 

CORRESPONDING    CONJUNCTIONS.  41 

N.B.  The  words  beholden,  bounden,  cloven,  drun- 
ken, graven,  laden,  molten,  sodden,  shaven,  shorn, 
sunken,  stricken,  stringed,  and  wrought,  which  were 
formerly  used  as  perfect  participles,  are  now  used 
only  as  adjectives. 


CORRESPONDING  CONJUNCTIONS. 

1.  Some  conjunctions  are  composed  of  two   cor- 
responding words.  The  following  list  embraces  most 
of  this  class  of  connectives,  and  exhibits  the  correct 
mode  of  employing  them  : — 

Both — and :  "  It  is  the  work  of  a  mind  fitted  both 
for  minute  researches  and  for  large  speculations." — 
Macaulay. 

Though,  although — yet,  still,  nevertheless:  "  Though 
deep,  yet  clear — though  gentle,  yet  not  dull ;" — 
"  Though  a  thousand  rivers  discharge  themselves 
into  the  ocean,  still  it  is  never  full." 

Whether — cr :  "  Whether  it  were  I  or  they." 

Either — or:  "No  leave  ask'st  thou  of  either  wind 
or  tide." 

Neither — nor  :  "Neither  act  nor  promise  hastily." 

2.  Some  conjunctions  are  used  in  correspondence 
with  adverbs  or  adjectives.     The  following  are  the 
principal  connectives  of  this  class  : — 

As — as,  so:  "  She  is  as  amiable  as  her  sister  ;"- 
"As  he  excels  in  virtue,  so  he  rises  in  estimation." 

So — as:  "  ISTo  riches  make  one  so  happy  as  a  clear 
conscience ;" — "  Speak  so  as  to  be  understood." 

So — that,  expressing  a  consequence :  "  She  speaks 
*o  low  that  no  one  can  hear  what  she  is  saying." 


42  MISCELLANEOUS    OBSERVATIONS. 

Not  only — but,  but  also  :  "  He  was  not  only  pru- 
dent, but  also  industrious." 

Such — as:  "  There  never  was  such  a  time  as  the 
present. 

Such — that :  "Suck  is  the  emptiness  of  human 
enjoyment  that  we  are  always  impatient  of  the 
present." 

More,  sooner,  &c. — than:  "  They  have  more  than 
heart  could  wish ;" — "  The  Greeks  were  braver  than 
the  Persians/7 


MISCELLANEOUS  OBSERVATIONS. 

ON   POINTS,   THAT   OCCASION   DIFFICULTY   TO   THE   STUDENT. 

1.  The  letters  20  and  y  are  consonants,  when  they 
precede  a  vowel  in  the  same  syllable :  as  in  wine, 
twine,  youth — in  other  situations  they  are  vowels. 

2.  A  and  An  are  one  and  the  same  article.     A  is 
used,  whenever  the  following  word  begins  with  a 
consonant — as,  A  man,  a  tree ;   or  with  an  aspirated 
h — as,  a  house,  a  horse ;  or,  with  a  consonant  sound 
— as;  such  a  one,  a  university,  a  ewe,  a  eulogy.  N.B. 
The  words  university,  ewe,  and  eulogy,  begin  with 
the  consonant  sound  of  y,  and  the  word  one  with  the 
consonant  sound  of  w. 

An  is  used,  whenever  the  following  word  begins 
with  a  vowel — as,  an  army,  an  ounce ;  or,  with  an 
k  not  sounded — as,  an  hour,  an  heir. 

An  is  also  employed  by  most  writers  before  words 
beginning  with  an  aspirated  h,,  when  the  accent  falls 
on  the  second  syllable — as,  " An  historical  piece ;" 


MISCELLANEOUS    OBSERVATIONS.  43 

"An    hereditary    government ; "    "An    harmonious 
whole." 

A  or  an  is  the  Saxon  word  ane  or  an,  signifying 
one. 

3.  The  possessive  case,  denotes  ownership  or  posses- 
sion :  as,  "John's  book  " — "  The  sun's  rays." 

The  possessive  singular  of  nouns  is  generally 
formed  by  adding  an  apostrophe,  with  the  letter  «?, 
to  the  nominative  :  as,  nom.  man;  poss.  marts. 

The  possessive  of  singular  nouns  ending  in  the 
sound  of  s  or  z,  is  sometimes  formed  by  adding  only 
the  apostrophe;  as,  "Achilles'  shield."  In  poetry, 
this  omission  of  the  additional  s  must  be  regarded 
as  fully  sanctioned  by  usage.  It  is  also  allowable 
in  prose,  when  the  use  of  the  s  would  require  the 
utterance  of  several  hissing  sounds  in  rapid  succes- 
sion ;  as,  "Moses'  disciples" — "Dames'  Surveying" 
— "For  conscience?  sake" — "For  righteousness''  sake" 
— but,  say,  "The  witness's  testimony."  In  all  other 
cases  the  regular  form  is  to  be  preferred;  as,  "Col- 
lins's  Odes" — "Erasmus's  Dialogues." 

"Achilles'  shield  his  ample  shoulders  spread, 

Achilles'  helmet  nodded  o'er  his  head."— Pope. 
"  A  train  of  heroes  followed  through  the  field, 
Who  bore  by  turns  great  Ajax'  seven-fold  shield." 

Ibid. 

Plural  nouns  ending  in  s,  form  the  possessive  by 
adding  an  apostrophe  only  ;  as,  nom.  fathers:  poss. 
fathers'. 

Plural  nouns,  that  do  not  end  in  s,  form  the  pos- 
sessive by  adding  both  the  apostrophe  and  s ;  as, 


44  MISCELLANEOUS    OBSERVATIONS 

nom.  men;  poss.mens.  The  import  of  the  possessive 
may,  in  general,  be  expressed  by  the  particle  of. 
Thus,  for  "man's  wisdom,'*  we  may  say,  "The  wis- 
dom of  man" 

When  the  singular  and  plural  are  alike  in  the 
nominative,  the  apostrophe  ought  to  follow  the  s  in 
the  plural,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  singular;  as 
"  a  sheep's  head  ;"  "  shceps*  heads." 

The  sign  's  is  a  contraction  of  es  or  is.  Thus 
man's,  king's,  were  formerly  written  manes  or 
manis,  hinges  or  Idngis. 

N.  B.  The  Rev.  Dr.  M'Culloch,  in  his  admirable 
"  Manual  of  English  Grammar,"  says — "  It  has  been 
supposed  that  the  termination  ['s]  of  the  English 
possessive  is  a  contraction  of  the  possessive  pro 
noun.  his.  Thus—*  John's  book'  has  been  said  to 
be  an  abreviation  of  *  John  his  book.'  But  this 
opinion  is  evidently  erroneous.  The  termination 
['*]  cannot  always  be  resolved  into  the  pronoun  his. 
We  cannot  resolve  '  queen's  crown'  into  *  queen  his 
crown,'  or  *  children's  bread'  into  '  children  his 
bread.'  The  fact  seems  to  be,  that  the  English 
possessive  termination  is  one  of  the  parts  of  our 
language,  which  we  have  preserved  from  the  Sax- 
on. The  casal  termination  of  the  Saxon  possessive 
is  es  or  is,  as  appears  in  such  phrases  as  •  Godes 
sight'  l  hingis  crown?  The  progress  of  change  in 
the  termination  seems  to  have  been  es,  is,  's." 

Several  respectable  authors  and  critics  have  fallen 
into  the  error  of  regarding  this  possessive  termina- 
tion as  a  contraction  of  the  pronoun  his.  "  The 
game  single  letter  [s],  on  many  occasions,  does  the 


ON    DIFFICULT    POINTS.  45 

office  of  a  whole  word,  and  represents  the  7iis  or  her 
of  our  forefathers." — Addiscn. 

It  is  true  that  the  word  his  was  frequently  writ- 
ten after  words  to  form  the  possessive,  by  Spenser, 
Dryden,  Pope,  and  other  popular  authors,  during  a 
period  of  two  or  three  centuries,  as,  "  Christ  Jiis 
sake" — "  Socrates  fys  rules ;"  but  the  present  con- 
tracted form  of  the  possessive  was  in  use  still 
earlier,  and  our  ablest  philologists  have  uniformly 
referred  its  origin  to  the  old  Saxon  termination. 

4.  Adjectives  have  three  degrees  of  comparison  : 
— the  positive,  the  comparative,  and  the  superlative; 
but  it  has  been  objected  to  the  positive  form,  that, 
as  it  denotes  the  quality  in  its  simple  state,  without 
increase  or  diminution,  it  cannot  properly  be  called 
a  degree.  It  should,  however,  be  borne  in  mind 
that  all  adjectives  imply  a  general  comparison  of 
qualities.  Thus,  when  we  say  that  a  man  is  dis- 
creet, we  obviously  mean  that  he  has  more  discre- 
tion than  the  generality  of  men.  So  also  when  we 
say  that  a  man  is  tall,  it  is  implied  that  he  is  tall 
compared  with  other  men.  Hence  arises  the  differ- 
ence between  the  height  of  a  tall  man  and  that  of 
a  tall  tree,  each  being  compared  with  others  of  the 
same  kind.  In  this  sense,  therefore,  the  positive  is 
strictly  and  properly  a  degree  of  comparison. 

The  following  adjectives  are  compared  irregu- 
larly : — 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

Good,  Better,  Best, 

Bad,  evil,  or  ill,    Worse,  Worst, 


46  MISCELLANEOUS    OBSERVATIONS 

Positive.         Comparative.  Superlative. 

Far,  Further,  Farther,Farthest, 

Furthest. 
Late,  Later,  Latest,  [referring 

to  time.] 
Last,  [in  order.] 

Little,  Less,  Least. 

Much,  or  many,  More,  Most. 

Near,  Nearer,  Nearest,    [Refer- 

ring to  place.] 
Next  [in  order.] 
Old,  Older,  Elder,        Oldest,  Eldest, 

N.  B.  Elder  and  eldest  are  applied  to  persons  ; 
and,  according  to  the  best  usage,  only  in  comparing 
members  of  the  same  family.  Thus — an  elder  bro- 
ther, the  eldest  sister :  but — Wellington  was  little 
older  than  Napoleon ;  the  oldest  street  in  the  town. 
—D'Orsey. 

Some  adjectives  in  the  superlative  degree  are 
formed  by  adding  most  to  the  comparative,  or  to  the 
word,  from  which  the  comparative  itself  is  made ; 
as,  hind,  hinder,  hindermost  or  hindmost :  nether, 
nethermost :  up,  uppermost  or  upmost :  in,  innermost, 
or  inmost. 

Diminution  of  quality  is  expressed  by  less  and 
least,  whether  the  adjective  be  of  one  syllable  or 
more  than  one ;  as,  bold,  less  bold,  least  bold. 

5.  There  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  for  joining 
an  and  other.  An  here  excludes  any  other  article : 
and  analogy  and  consistency  require  that  the  words 
be  separated.  Their  union  has  sometimes  led  to  an 


ON    DIFFICULT    POINTS.  47 

improper  repetition  of  the  article ;  as,  "  Mother 
such  a  man,"  for  "  An  other  such  man." 

6.  The  pronoun  you  was  originally  plural  in  sig- 
nification, but  it  is  now  universally  employed  in 
popular  discourse  to  represent  either  a  singular  or  a 
plural  noun. 

"No  usage  of  our  language  is  more  fully  established 
than  that,  which  recognizes  you  as  the  representa- 
tive of  nouns  in  the  singular  number. 

Brightland,  one  of  the  earliest  of  our  English 
grammarians,  who  wrote  in  1710,  classes  you  with 
the  singular  pronouns  /,  thou  and  he.  Greenwood, 
in  his  celebrated  grammar,  which  appeared  the  fol- 
lowing year,  says — "  Thou  or  you  is  of  the  second 
person  singular."  The  same  opinion  was  enter- 
tained by  many  other  grammatical  writers  of  the 
last  century. 

Lindley  Murray's  Grammar  first  appeared  in 
1795.  Following  the'  practice  of  the  Society  of 
Friends, — the  community,  in  which  he  was  edu- 
cated,— he  restricted  you  to  the  plural  number ;  and 
such  was  the  influence  of  his  example  that  this 
word  was,  for  a  time,  very  generally  excluded  from 
the  list  of  singular  pronouns. 

There  has,  however,  always  existed  a  respecta- 
ble class  of  authors,  who  have  treated  this  pronoun 
you  as  singular,  when  used  to  personate  an  individ- 
ual :  and,  during  the  last  forty  years,  the  number 
of  this  class  has  very  rapidly  increased. 

"  It  is  altogether  absurd  to  consider  you  as  exclu- 
sively a  plural  pronoun  in  the  modern  English  lan- 
guage. It  may  be  a  matter  of  history,  that  it  was 


48  MISCELLANEOUS    OBSERVATIONS 

originally  used  as  a  plural  only  :  and  it  may  be  a 
matter  of  theory,  that  it  was  first  applied  to  individ- 
uals on  a  principle  of  flattery  :  but  thejfac£  is,  that 
it  is  now  our  second  person  singular.  When  ap- 
plied to  an  individual,  it  never  excites  any  idea 
either  of  plurality  or  of  adulation  :  but  excites,  pre- 
cisely and  exactly,  the  idea,  t^iat  was  excited  by 
the  use  of  thou,  in  an  earlier  stage  of  the  language/' 
— Jeffreyi  in  ^ie  Edinburgh  Review. 

"  If  a  word,  once  exclusively  plural,  becomes,  by 
universal  use,  the  sign  of  individuality,  it  must  take 
its  place  in  the  singular  number.  That  this  is  the 
fact  with  you,  is  proved  by  national  usage." — Web- 
ster. 

7.  The  "  Soctety  of  Friends'"  profess  to  use  thou 
in  addressing  a   single  individual — many  of  them, 
however,   [perhaps  from  an  idea  that  it  is  less  for- 
mal,] misemploy  thee.  for  thou,  and  often  join  it  to 
the  third  person  of  the  verb,  instead  of  the  second. 
Such  expressions  as   tl  thee  does,  thee  is,  thee  has, 

•  thee  thinks"  &c.,  are  double  solecisms;  they  set  all 
grammar  at  defiance.  We  have,  however,  in  Scrip- 
ture, an  instance  of  similar  inaccuracy  :  "For  thou 
shalt  eat  the  labor  of  thine  hands;  O  well  is  thee 
[that  is  to  say,  O  thee  is  well,]  and  happy  shalt 
thou  be." — Psalm  cxxviii.  2.  Prayer  Book  Trans- 
lation. 

8.  Never  say  "  I  have  come  " — "  He  has  risen  " 
— "  They  were  once  in  good  circumstances,  but  have 
now  fallen  " — but  "  I  am  come  " — "  He  is  risen" — 
"  They  Tvere,  &c.,  but  arc,  now  fallen." 

9.  We   nearly  always  see  can  and  not  written  as 


ON    DIFFICULT    POINTS.  49 

one  word  :  thus,  cannot.  This  is  not  always  correct. 
The  rule  for  the  junction  or  non-junction  is  very 
simple  :  When  power  is  denied,  can  and  not  are 
united  to  prevent  ambiguity  :  as,  "  I  cannot  go." 
But  when  the  power  is  affirmed,  and  something  else 
is  denied,  the  words  are  written  separately  :  as, 
"  The  Christian  apologist  cannot  merely  expose  the 
utter  baseness  of  the  infidel  assertion,  but  he  has 
also  positive  ground  for  erecting  an  opposite  and 
confronting  assertion  in  its  place." 

10.  When  adjectives  are  connected,  and  the  qual- 
ities belong  to  things  individually  different,  though 
of  the  same  name,  the  article  should  be  repeated : 
as,  "  A  black  and  a  white  horse." 

When  adjectives  are  connected,  and  the  qualities 
all  belong  to  the  same  thing  or  things,  the  article 
should  not  be  repeated :  as,  "A  black  and  white 
horse."  N.B.  By  a  repetition  of  the  article  before 
several  adjectives  in  the  same  construction,  a  repe- 
tition of  the  noun  is  implied  ;  but  without  a  repeti- 
tion of  the  article  the  adjectives  are  confined  to  one 
and  the  same  noun. 

To  avoid  repetition,  inconsistent  qualities  are 
sometimes  joined  to  a  plural  noun  :  as,  "  The  old 
and  new  testaments,"  for  "  The  old  and  the  new 
testament." 

11.  Were  is  sometimes  used  for  would  be  or  should 
be :  as,  "  Ah  !  what  were  man  should  Heaven  refuse 
to  hear  ?  » 

Had  is  also  occasionally  employed  for  would  liavc 
or  should  liave;  as,  "  I  had  not  known  sin  but  by 
the  law." 


50  MISCELLANEOUS    OBSERVATIONS 

12.  The  verb  need  is  often  used  in  the  third  per- 
son singular  of  the  indicative  present,  without  the 
personal  termination  :  as,    "  The  truth  need,  not  be 
disguised  :"  "  There  was  one  condition,  which  need 
not  be  mentioned.7' 

13.  When  the  article  a  or  an  is  placed  before  the 
words  few  or  little,  it*  generally  changes  their  mean- 
ing from  negative  to  positive.     Thus,  when  we  say, 
"  There  wereyew;  persons  present,"  the  wovdfew  is 
used  in  a  negative  sense,  in  distinction  from  many, 
to  denote  the  smallness  of  the  number.    But  when  we 
say,  "  There  were  a  few  persons  present,"  the  word 

Jew  is  used  in  a  positive  sense,  in  distinction  from  none, 
to  denote  that  there  were  some  persons  present.  The 
expressions,  "  He  needs  little  aid,"  and  "  He  needs 
a  little  aid,"  serve  also  to  illustrate  this  remark. 

14.  When  two  nouns  following  a  comparative  re- 
fer to  different  persons  or  things,  the  article  should 
bo  repeated  before  the  second  noun :  but  when  the 
two  nouns  refer  to  the  same  person  or  thing,  the 
article  should  not  be  repeated.     Thus,  in  the  sen- 
tence, "  He  is  a  better  soldier  than  a  scholar,"  the 
terms  soldier  and  scholar  relate  properly  to  different 
individuals,  and  it  is  implied  that  he  is  a  better  soldier 
than  a  scholar  would  be.     But,  in  the  sentence,  "  He 
is  a  better  soldier  than   scholar,'7  the  terms  soldier 
and  scholar  are  limited  to  one  individual,  and  it  is 
implied  that  he  is  better  in  the  capacity  of  a  sol- 
dier than  in  that  of  a  scholar. 

15.  Adjectives,  that  imply  unity  or  plurality, 
must  agree  with  their  nouns  in  number:  as,  ''That 
sort ;"  "  Those  sorts*"  Never  say,  "  Those  sort  of 
persons  " — a  very  common  expression. 


ON    DIFFICULT    POINTS.  51 

16.  When  the  adjective  is  necessarily  plural,  the 
noun  should  be  made  so  too  :  as,  "  Twenty  pounds}'' 
not  "  Twenty  pound :"    a   very  common    mistake. 
N.B.  In  some  peculiar  phrases,  however,  this  rule 
appears  to  be  disregarded  ;  as,  "  Tub  hundred  penny- 
worth of  bread  is  not  sufficient."  John  vi.  7. — ll  Twen- 
ty sail  of  vessels." — "A  hundred  head  of  cattle." 

17.  The  noun  means  has  the  same  form  in  both 
numbers  :  it  should,  therefore,  be  used  with  an  ad- 
jective of  the  singular  or  plural  number,  as  the  sense 
requires :  as,  "  By  this  means  they  bear  witness  to 
each  other."      Mean,  in  this  sense,  is  not  in  good 
use. 

18.  When  the  comparative  degree  is  employed, 
the  latter   term   of   comparison    should   never  in- 
clude the  former :  as,  "Iron  is  more  useful  than  all 
the   metals."     It   should  be,   "  than  all   the,   other 
metals." 

19.  When  the   superlative  degree  is  employed, 
the  latter  term  of  comparison  should  never  exclude 
the  former :  as,  "A  fondness  for  show  is,  of  all  other 
follies,  the  most  vain.'7     The  word  other  should  be 
expunged. 

20.  An  explanatory  clause  should  never  be  inser- 
ted between  a  positive  noun  and  the  word  by  which 
it  is  governed.     The  following  sentence  is  faulty  in 
this  respect : — "  She  began  to  extol  the  farmer's,  as 
she  called  him,  excellent  understanding.'7     It  should 
be,  "  She  began  to  extol  the  excellent  understand- 
ing of  the  farmer,  as  she  called  him." 

21.  The  pronoun  who  should  not  be  used  to  rep- 
resent a  name,  which  is  taken  merely  as  a  word. 
Thus,  "  The  court  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  was  but 


52  MISCELLANEOUS    OBSERVATIONS 

another  name  for  prudence  and  economy/'  should 
be,  "The  court  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  whose  name 
was  but  another  word  for  prudence  and  economy." 

22.  The  word  what  should  not  be  used  for  the 
conjunction  that,  nor  that  for  the  compound  relative 
what,  that  is  to  say,  for  the  relative  pronoun  what, 
as  equivalent  in  signification  to  that  which,  or  those 
which.     The  following  sentences  are  in  this  respect 
faulty  : — "  They  would  not  believe  Imtwhat  he  was 
guilty  :" — "  We  speak  that  we  do  know,  and  testify 
that  we  have  seen." 

23.  What  is  sometimes  used  adverbially,  in  the 
sense  of  partly,  or  in  part :  as,  "  What  with  <  wood- 
ing' at  two  or  three  places,  and  what  with  the  ex- 
citement of  the  day,  we  were  too  fatigued  to  give 
more  than  a  glance  and  a  passing  note  of  admira- 
tion to  the  beauty  of  the  scene." 

24.  Relatives  should  be  so  placed  as  to  prevent 
all  ambiguity  in  regard  to  the  words  which  they  are 
intended  to  represent.     The  following  sentence  is, 
therefore,  objectionable  : — "He  is  unworthy  of  the 
confidence  of  a  fellow-being  that  disregards  the  laws 
of  his  Maker."     Corrected : — "  He  that  disregards 
the  laws  of  his  Maker  is  unworthy  of  the  confidence 
of  a  fellow-being." 

"  I  am  the  man,  who  command  you."  This  sen- 
tence is  ambiguous,  and  may  be  corrected  in  two 
different  ways.  If  who  is  intended  to  refer  to  J,  we 
should  say,  "I,  who  command  you,  am  the  man." 
But  if  who  is  intended  to  refer  to  man,  then  we  should 
say,  "I  am  the  man  who  commands  you." 

25.  In  familiar  language  the  relative  is  sometimes 


ON    DIFFICULT    POINTS.  53 

improperly  omitted.  Thus, l'  He  is  a  man  I  greatly 
esteem,'7  should  be,  ft  He  is  a  man  whom  I  greatly 
esteem."  So,  also,  "  I  am  dissatisfied  with  the  man- 
ner I  have  spent  my  time,"  should  be,  "I  am  dis- 
satisfied with  the  manner  in  which  I  have  spent  my 
time." 

26.  Whatever  is  sometimes  employed  merely  for 
the  purpose  of  rendering  a  word  or  phrase  emphatic : 
as,  "No  condition  whatever" 

27.  In    order   to  determine,  in    difficult    cases, 
whether  an  adjective  or  an  adverb  is  required,  the 
student  should  carefully  attend  to  the  definition  of 
these  parts  of  speech,  and  consider  whether,  in  the 
case   in  question,  quality  or  manner  is  to  be   ex- 
pressed: if  the  former,  an   adjective  is  proper:  if 
the  latter,  an  adverb.     The  following  examples  will 
illustrate  this  point :    "  She  looks  cold : — she  looks 
coldly  on  him."     "  I  sat  silent : — I  sat  silently  mus- 
ing."   "  Stand  firm  : — maintain  your  cause^rwZy." 

28.  The  pronominal  adjectives,  each,  every,  either, 
and  neither,  are  always  in  the  third  person  singular ; 
and    when   they  are   the    leading  words   in   their 
clauses,  they  require  verbs  and  pronouns  to  agree 
with  them  accordingly :  as,  "Each  of  you  is  entitled 
to  his  share." 

29.  Either  and  neither  relate  to  two  things  only  : 
when  more  are  referred  to,  any  and  none  should  be 
used  instead  of  them  :  as,  " Any  of  the  three  " — not 
"Either  of  the  three."     "  None  of  the  four  " — not 
"Neither  of  the  four." 

30.  Which,  as  well  as  who,  was  formerly  applied 
to  persons ;  as,  "  Our  Father,  which  art  in  heaven." 


54  MISCELLANEOUS    OBSERVATIONS 

It  may  still  be  applied  to  a  young  child :  as,  "  The 
child  which  died." 

31.  Nouns  of  multitude,  unless  they  express  per- 
sons directly  as  such,  should  not  be  represented  by 
the  relative  who  :  to  say,  "  The  family ',  whom  I 
visited,"  would  hardly  be  proper:  that  would  here 
be  better.  When,  however,  such  nouns  are  strictly 
of  the  neuter  gender,  the  pronoun  which  may  rep- 
resent them  :  as,  "  The  committees  which  were  ap- 
pointed." 

o'-2.  An  adverb  should  not  be  used,  where  a  pre- 
position and  a  relative  pronoun  would  better  express 
the  relation  of  the  terms  :  as,  "A  cause  where  justice 
is  so  much  concerned  :"  say,  "in  which  justice,"  &c. 

33.  Where  a  pronoun  or  a  pronominal  adjective 
will  not  express  the  meaning  clearly,  the  noun  must 
be  repeated.     In  the  following  sentence  the  mean- 
ing is  not  clearly  expressed  :  "  we  see  the  beautiful 
variety   of  colour  in  the  rainbow,  and  are  led  to 
consider  the  cause  of  it"  say,  "  the  cause  of  that 
variety. 

34.  The  relative  that  may  be   applied  either  to 
persons  or  to  things.     In  the  following  cases  it  is 
preferable  to  who  or  which  : — 1.  After  an  adjective 
of  the  superlative  degree  :  as,  "  He  was  the  first, 
that  came." — 2.  After  the  adjective  same :  as,  "  This 
is  the  s:ime  person  that  I  met  before." — 3.  After  the 
antecedent  who  :  as  "  Who,  that  has  common  sense, 
can  think  so  V — 4.  After  a  joint  reference  to  per- 
sons and  things  :  as,  "  He  spoke  of  the   men  and 
things,  that  he  had  seen." — 5.  After  an  unlimited 
antecedent :  as,  "  Thoughts,  that  breathe,  and  ivords, 


ON    DIFFICULT    POINTS.  55 

that  burn." — 6.  After  an  antecedent  introduced  by 
the  expletive  it :  as,  "  It  is  you,  that  command." 
"  It  was  J,  that  did  it." — 7.  And,  in  general,  where 
the  propriety  of  who  or  which  is  doubtful :  as,  "  The 
little  child,  that  was  placed  in  the  midst." 

35.  A    collective    noun   conveying   the    idea  of 
unity,  requires  a  noun  in  the  third  person  singular, 
neuter  :  as,  "  The  nation  will  enforce  its  laws." 

Most  collective  nouns  of  the  neuter  gender  may 
take  the  regular  plural  form,  and  be  represented  by 
a  pronoun  in  the  third  person  plural,  neuter:  as, 
"  The  nations  will  enforce  their  laws." 

36.  The  adjuncts  of  the  nominative  do  not  con- 
trol its  agreement  with  the  verb  :  as,  "  Six  months' 
interest  was  due." — "  The  propriety  of  these  rules 
is  evident" — "  The  mill,  with  all  its  appurtenances, 
was  destroyed." 

37.  Either   is    occasionally    employed   by    good 
writers  in  the  sense  of  each  :  as,  "  On  either  side  the 
giant    guards    divide." — Southey.      "  The    Sabine 
hills  and  the  Albanian  mountains  stretch  on  cither 
hand." — Irving.     "N.  B. — This  practice,  however, 
should  be  carefully  avoided. 

38.  In  the  use  of  comparative  and  superlative  ad- 
jectives, care  should  be  taken  not  to  include  a  noun 
or  pronoun  in  a  class,  to  which  it  does  not  belong, 
nor  exclude  it  from  a  class,  to  which  it  does  belong. 
Thus,  it  would  be  improper  to  say,  "  Socrates  was 
wiser  than  any  Athenian,"  because   Socrates  was 
himself  an  Athenian,  and  could  not  be  wiser  than 
himself.    The  correct  form  would  be,  "  Socrates  was 
wiser  than  any  other  Athenian,"  or,  "  Socrates  was 


56  MISCELLANEOUS    OBSERVATIONS 

I 

the  wisest  of  the  Athenians.''  The  following  sentence 
is  also  erroneous  : — "  The  vice  of  covetousness,  of 
all  others,  enters  deepest  into  the  soul."  Covet- 
ousness is  not  one  of  the  other  vices,  as  the  con- 
struction of  the  sentence  would  imply.  Correct- 
ed : — "  Of  all  the  vices,  covetousness  enters  deepest 
into -the  soul." 

39.  The  word  "  self,"  when  used  alone,  is  a  noun : 
as,  "The  love  of  self  is  predominant." 

40.  Double    comparatives    and    superlatives,    as 
worser,  most  straitest,  should  he  carefully  avoided. 

The  word  lesser  is,  however,  sometimes  employed 
by  good  writers  :  as,  "  Of  lesser  note." — Goldsmith. 
**  Lesser  graces" — Blair.  "  Like  lesser  streams." — 
Coleridge. 

41.  The  verbs  need  and  want  are  sometimes  em- 
ployed in  a  general  sense,  without  a  nominative, 
expressed  or  implied  :   as  "  There  needed  a  new  dis- 
pensation  of  religion  for  the  moral  reform  of  so- 
ciety."— Eceleigh.     "  There  needs  no  better  picture 
of  his  destitute  and  piteous  situation,  than  that  fur- 
nished by  the  homely  pen  of  the  chronicler." — Irv- 
ing.    "  Wheresoever  the  case  of  the  opinions  came 
in  agitation,  there  wanted  not  patrons  to  stand  up 
and  plead  for  them." — Sparks. 

"  Nor  did  there  want 

Cornice,  or  frieze,  with  bossy  sculptures  graven." 

Milton. 

42.  Idiomatic  expressions    sometimes    occur,    in 
which  intransitive  verbs  are  followed  by  objectives 
depending  on  them  :  as  'l  Perhaps  we  have  wanted 


ON    DIFFICULT    POINTS.  57 

• 

the  spirit,  the  manliness,  to  look  the  subject  fully  in 
the  face." — Channing.  "They  laughed  him  to 
scorn." — Matt.  ix.  24. 

"  The  broken  soldier,  kindly  hid  to  stay, 
Sat  by  his  fire,  and  talked  the  night  away." 

Goldsmith. 

43.  The  verb  learn  is  often  improperly  used  for 
teach  :  as,  "  It  is   of  little  utility  to  learn  scholars 
that  certain  words  are  signs  of  certain  moods  and 
tenses."     Insert  teach  in  the  place  of  learn. 

44.  The  imperfect  participle  of  a  transitive  verb 
is  sometimes  employed  in  a  passive  sense  :  as  "  The 
fortress  was  building. 

Different  opinions  have  long  existed  among  critics 
respecting  this  passive  use  of  the  imperfect  partici- 
ple. Many  respectable  writers  substitute  the  com- 
pound passive  participle  :  as,  "  The  house  is  being 
built :" — "  The  book  is  being  printed.'1  The  pre- 
vailing practice,  however,  of  the  best  authors,  is  in 
favour  of  the  simple  form :  as,  "  The  house  is 
building" 

11  The  propriety  of  these  imperfect  passive  tenses 
has  been  doubted  by  almost  all  our  grammarians  : 
though  I  believe  but  few  of  them  have  written 
many  pages  without  condescending  to  make  use  of 
them.  Dr.  Beattie  says,  '  One  of  the  greatest  de- 
fects of  the  English  tongue,  with  regard  to  the 
verb,  seems  to  be  the  want  of  an  imperfect  passive 
participle.' — And  yet  he  uses  the  imperfect  parti- 
ciple in  a  passive  sense  as  often  as  most  writers." — 
Pickbourn's  "  Dissertation  on  the  English  Verb." 


58  MISCELLANEOUS    OBSERVATIONS 

A  distinguished  Reviewer  thus  expresses  himself 
in  reference  to  this  point  :  "  Several  other  expres- 
sions of  this  sort  now  and  then  occur,  such  as  the 
new-fangled  and  most  uncouth  solecism  l  is  Icing 
done,'  for  the  good  old  English  idiomatic  expression 
'is  doing,' — an  ahsurd  periphrasis,  driving  out  a 
pointed  and  pithy  turn  of  the  English  language." 

45.  When   the   nominative   is   a  collective  noun 
conveying  the  idea  of  plurality,  the  verb  must  agree 
with  it  in   the   plural   number  :  as,   "  The   council 
were  divided." 

46.  When  a  verb  has  nominatives  of  different 
persons  or  numbers,  connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must 
agree  with    that  which  is  placed  nearest  to  it,  and 
be  understood  to  the  rest,  in  the  person  and  num- 
ber required :  as,  "  Neither  he  nor  his  brothers  were 
there." — "Neither  you  nor  I  am  concerned." 

But  when  the  nominatives  require  different  forms 
of  the  verb,  it  is,  in  general,  more  elegant  to  ex- 
press the  verb,  or  its  auxiliary,  in  connexion  'with 
each  of  them  :  as,  "  Either  thou  art  to  blame,  or  I 
am" — Neither  were  their  numbers,  nor  was  their 
destination  known," 

47.  The  speaker  should  generally  mention  him- 
self last ;  as,  "  Thou  or  I  must  go  ;" — "He  then  ad- 
dressed his   discourse  to  my  father  and  mz." — But 
in  confessing  a  fault  he  may  assume  the  first  place: 
as,  "land  Robert  did  it." 

48.  Participles  have  the  same  government  as  the 
verbs  from  which  they  are  derived.     The  preposi- 
tion of,  therefore,  should  not  be  used  after  the  par- 
ticiple, when  the  verb  does  not  require  it.     Thus,  in 


ON    DIFFICULT    POINTS.  59 

phrases  like  the  following,  of  is  improper :  "  Keep- 
ing of  one  day  in  seven  ;" — "  By  preaching  of  re- 
pentance ;"— "  They  left  off  beating  of  Paul." 

When  participles  are  compounded  with  something 
that  does  not  belong  to  the  verb,  they  become  ad- 
jectives ;  and  as  such,  they  cannot  govern  an  object 
after  them.  The  following  sentence  from  "Jones's 
Church  History  "  is,  therefore,  inaccurate  :  "When 
Caius  did  anything  unbecoming  his  dignity." 

When  a  transitive  participle  is  converted  into  a 
noun,  of  must  be  inserted  to  govern  the  object  fol- 
lowing. 

An  imperfect  or  a  compound  participle,  preceded 
by  an  article,  an  adjective,  or  a  noun  or  pronoun  in 
the  possessive  case,  becomes  a  verbal  noun ;  and  as 
such,  it  cannot  govern  an  object  after  it.  A  word, 
which  may  be  the  object  of  the  participle  in  its 
proper  construction,  requires  the  preposition  of,  to 
connect  it  with  the  verbal  noun  :  as,  1.  [By  the  par- 
ticiple.] "By  exercising  the  body,  health  is  promo- 
ted." 2.  [By  the  verbal  noun.j  "  By  the  exercising 
of  the  body,  health  is  promoted."  Again:  1.  [By 
the  participle.]  "Much  depends  on  observing  this 
rule."  2.  [By  the  verbal  noun.]  "  Much  depends 
on  their  observing  of  this  rule." 

When  the  use  of  the  preposition  produces  ambi- 
guity or  harshness,  the  expression  must  be  varied. 
Thus — the  sentence, "  He  mentions  Newton's  writing 
of  SL  commentary,'7  is  both  ambiguous  and  awkward. 
If  the  preposition  be  omitted,  the  word  writing  will 
have  a  double  construction,  which  is  inadmissible. 
Some  would  say,  "He  mentions  Newton  writing  a 


60  MISCELLANEOUS    OBSERVATIONS 

commentary."  This  is  still  worse,  because  it  makes 
the  leading  word  in  sense  the  adjunct  in  construction. 
The  meaning  may  without  difficulty  Le  correctly 
expressed.  Thus :  "  He  mentions  that  Newton  wrote 
a  commentary.'7 — "  By  Jiis  studying  the  Scriptures 
he  became  wise."  Here  Jiis  serves  only  to  render 
the  sentence  incorrect. 

49.  The  verbal  noun  should  not  be  accompanied 
by  any  adjuncts  of  the  verb  or   participle,   unless 
they  be  taken  into  composition  :  as,   "  The  hypo- 
crite's hope  is  like  the  giving-up  of  the  ghost.7'  The 
following  phrase  is  therefore  inaccurate  :  *'  For  the 
more  easily  reading  of  large  numbers." — Yet,  if  we 
say,  " For  reading  large  numbers  the  more  easily" 
the  construction  is  different,  and  not  inaccurate. 

50.  In  sentences  like  the  following,  the  participle 
seems  to  be  improperly  made  the  object  of  the  verb  : 
"  I  intend  doing  it." — "  I  remember   meeting  him." 
— Better,  "I  intend  to  do  it." — "  I  remember  to  have 
met  him." 

51.  A  participle  construed  after  the  nominative 
or  the  objective  case,  is  not  equivalent  to  a  verbal 
noun  governing  the  possessive.      There    is   some- 
times a  nice  distinction  to  be  observed  in  the  appli- 
cation of  these   two   constructions,   as   the  leading 
word   in   sense  should  not  be  made  the  adjunct  in 
construction.      The  following    sentences  exhibit  a 
disregard  to  this  principle,  and  are  both  inaccurate  : 
"  He  felt  his  strength's  declining." — "  He  was  sensi- 
ble of  his  strength  declining."     In  the  former  sen- 
tence the  noun  strength  should  be  in  the   objective 


ON    DIFFICULT    POINTS.  61 

case,  governed  by  felt ;    and  in  the  latter,  in   the 
possessive,  governed  by  declining. 

52.  When  the   infinitive  follows  the  transitive 
verbs  lid,  dare,  feel,  sec,  let,  make,  need,  and  hear, 
the   sign  to  is    usually   omitted  :    as,    "  I  felt  my 
strength  return:" — "Nothing  need  be  said:" — "We 
heard  the  thunder  roll :" — "  Pride  guides  his  steps, 
and  bids  him  shun  the  great.'' 

The  sign  of  the  infinitive  is  also  omitted,  in  some 
instances,  after  the  verbs  have,  behold,  observe,  per- 
ceive, know,  and  help:  as,  "Would  they  have  us 
reject  such  an  offer  P 

53.  In  the  use  of  verbs,  those  tenses  alone  should 
be  employed  which  correctly  express  the  sense  in- 
tended. 

Although  this  rule  is  somewhat  indefinite,  yet 
when  taken  in  connection  with  the  definitions  and 
illustrations  of  the  tenses,  that,  are  given  in  many 
grammars,  it  will,  in  most  cases,  be  a  sufficient  guide 
to  the  student.  It  is  violated  in  the  following  ex- 
ample : — "After  I  visited*  Europe  I  returned  to 
America."  The  verb  visited  in  this  sentence  relates 
to  a  time  previous  to  that  denoted  by  the  verb  re- 
turned. It  should,  therefore,  be  in  the  past  perfect 
tense.  Corrected  : — "After  I  had  visited  Europe 
I  returned  to  America.'1 — "  I  expected  to  have  seen 
you,"  is  also  incorrect.  The  verb  "  to  have  seen" 
cannot  here  relate  to  a  time  prior  to  that  denoted 
by  the  verb  "  expected."  It  should  not,  therefore, 
be  in  the  past  perfect  tense.  Corrected  : — "  I  ex- 
pected to  see  you." 

54.  Never  is  sometimes  improperly  used  for  ever : 


62  MISCELLANEOUS    OBSERVATIONS 

• 

as,  "  They  might  be  extirpated,  were  they  never  so 
many."  Corrected : — "  They  might,  &c.,  were  they 
ever  so  many." 

55.  A  negation  is  properly  expressed  by  the  use 
of  one  negative  only.     The  following  sentence  is 
therefore  erroneous  : — 

"  I  never  did  repent  for  doing  good, 
Nor  shall  not  now." — Shakspere. 

56.  Two  negatives  in  the  same  clause  are  gen- 
erally equivalent  to  an  affirmative,  and  are  some- 
times   elegantly   employed    to  express  a    positive 
assertion :  as,    "  The    pilot    was    not  &« acquainted 
with  the  coast :" — uNor  did  he  pass  amoved  the 
gentle  scene."     The  intervention  of  only,  or  some 
other  word  of  kindred  meaning,  preserves  the  ne- 
gation :  as,    "  He  was  not  only  ^/liberal,   but   cov- 
etous/7 

57.  A  repetition  of  the  same  negative  renders  the 
negation  more  emphatic :    as,  "  I  would  never  lay 
down  my  arms: — never,  never,  never" — Pitt. 

56.  The  adverb  no  is  often  improperly  used  for 
not :  as,  "  Whether  he  will  or  no,  he  must  be  a  man 
of  the  nineteenth  century.'' — Macaulay. 

59.  Adverbs  should  be  placed  in  that  situation 
which  contributes  most  to  the  harmony  and  clear- 
ness of  the  sentence,  and  which  accords  best  with 
the  usage  of  the  language.  This  rule  is  violated  in 
the  sentence,  "  Thoughts  are  only  criminal  when 
they  are  first  chosen  and  then  voluntarily  contin- 
ued."— Johnson.  As  it  now  stands,  the  adverb  only 
properly  qualifies  criminal,  whereas  the  author  in- 
tended to  have  it  qualify  the  clause  following  when. 


ON    DIFFICULT    POINTS.  63 

Corrected  : — "  Thoughts  are  criminal  only  when 
they  are  first  chosen,  and  then  voluntarily  contin- 
ued." The  following  sentence  is  also  faulty: — -"It 
is  not  the  business  of  virtue  to  extirpate  the 
affections  of  the  mind,  but  to  regulate  them/* 
Corrected: — "The  business  of  virtue  is  not  to  ex- 
tirpate the  affections  of  the  mind,  but  to  regulate 
them.7' 

60.  An  adverb  should  not  be  placed  immediately 
after  the  infinitive  particle  to.     This  rule  is  violated 
in    the   following    sentence: — ''Teach    scholars  to 
carefully  scrutinize  the  sentiments  advanced  in  all 
the    books    they    read:"    say  "Teach    scholars  to 
scrutinize   carefully"   &c.,  or   "carefully  to  scruti- 
nize/7 &c. 

61.  Than  should  be  used  to  correspond  with  rather, 
and  with  all  comparative*.     The  clause  following 
other  is   also   more    properly  introduced  by  than, 
though  good  writers  occasionally  employ  some  other 
term.     N.B.    "  In  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  we 
have,  *  Thou  shalt  have  no  other  gods  but  me  :'  and 
the  same  expression  occurs  in  Addison,  Swift,  and 
other  contemporary  writers.  Usage,  however,  seems 
of  late  to  have  decided  almost  universally  in  favour 
of  than." — Dr.  Crombie. 

62.  The  conjunction  so  is  occasionally  used  in  the 
sense  ofifoT  provided  that :  as,  "  It  signifies  little 
whether  it  be  very  well  executed  or  not,  so  it  be 
reasonably  well    done,    and    without    any    glaring 
omissions  or  errors." — Lord  Brougham. 

63.  The  word  both  should  not  be  used  with  ref- 
erence to  more  than  two  objects  or  classes  of  ob- 


64  MISCELLANEOUS    OBSERVATIONS 

jects.  The  following  example  is,  therefore,  erro- 
neous : — "  He  paid  his  contributions  to  literary 
undertakings,  and  assisted  both  the  Tatler,  Specta- 
tor, and  Guardian.'7 — Johnson.  Both  should  be 
omitted. 

64.  The  conjunction  as,  used  in  connection  with 
an  adjective  or  adverb  in  the  positive  degree,  is 
sometimes  improperly  coupled  with  a  comparative, 
and  followed  by  than :  as,  "  The  latest  posterity  will 
listen  with  as  much  or  even  greater  pleasure  than 
their  contemporaries." — Everett.  Corrected  : — "The 
latest  posterity  will  listen  with  as  much  pleasure  as 
their  contemporaries,  or  even  greater." 

65.  A   preposition    and  its    object   should  be  so 
placed  as  to   leave  no  ambiguity  in  regard  to  the 
words  which  the  preposition  is  intended  to  connect. 
The  following  sentence  is  faulty  in  this  respect : — 
"  The  message  Avas  communicated  by  an  agent,  who 
had  never  before  discharged  any  important  office  of 
trust,  in  compliance,  with  the  instructions  of  the  ex- 
ecutive."    In  is  here  intended  to  show  the  relation 
between  was  communicated  and  compliance;  whereas 
the  present  arrangement  indicates  that  it  expresses 
the  relation  between  had  discharged  and  compliance. 
Corrected.:— li  The  message  was  communicated  in 
compliance  with  the  instructions  of  the  executive,  by 
an  agent,  who  had  never  before  discharged  any  im- 
portant office  of  trust." 

66.  Care  should  be  taken  to  employ  such  prepo- 
sitions as  express  clearly  and  precisely  the  rela- 
tions intended  :  as  "  He  went  to  Glasgow  :" — "  He 
arrived  at  Liverpool :" — "  He  rode  into  the  country:" 


ON    DIFFICULT    POINTS.  65 

— "  He  resides  in  London  :" — "  He  walks  with  a 
staff  &?/  moonlight :" — "The  mind  is  sure  to  revolt 
from  the  humiliation  of  being  thus  moulded  and 
fashioned,  in  respect  to  its  feelings,  at  the  pleasure 
of  another." —  Whately. 

67.  But  is  sometimes  employed  as  a  preposition, 
in  the  sense  of  except :  as, 

"  The  boy  stood  on  the  burning  deck, 
Whence  all  but  him  had  fled." — Hemans. 

68.  "  O'clock"  is    an    eliptical    expression,    con- 
tracted from   "Of  the  clock:" — "At  seven   of  the 
dock:1  —  Spectator.      "By    five    of   the    dock." — 
Shalcspere. 

69.  The  preposition  into  expresses  a  relation  pro- 
duced by  motion  or  change  :  and  in,  the  same  rela- 
tion, without  reference  to  motion  :  hence,  "  to  walk 
into  the  garden/'  and,  "  to  walk  in  the  garden,"  are 
very  different. 

70.  Between  or  betwixt  is  used  in  reference  to 
two  things  or  parties  :  among  or  amidst,  in  refer- 
ence to  a  greater  number,  or  to  something,  by  which 
another  may  be  surrounded :  as, 

"  Thou  pendulum  betwixt  a  smile  and  tear." — Byron. 
"  The  host  between  the  mountain  arid  the  shore." — Id. 

"To  meditate  amongst  decay,  and  stand 
A  ruin  amidst  ruins." — Byron. 

71.  Two  separate  prepositions  have  sometimes  a 
joint  reference  to  the  same  noun  :  as  "  He  boasted 
of,  and  contended  for,  the  privilege."     This  con- 
struction is  formal,  and   scarcely  allowable,  except 


66  MISCELLANEOUS    OBSERVATIONS 

in  the  law  style.     It  is  better  to  say,  "  He  boasted 
of  the  privilege,  and  contended  for  it." 

72.  By  the   customary  [but  faulty]   omission  of 
the  negative  before  but,  that  conjunction  has  ac- 
quired the  adverbial   sense  of  only  :  and  it  may, 
when  used  with    that    signification,  be    called  an 
adverb.     Thus  the  text,  "  He  hath  not  grieved  me 
but  in  part,  [2  Cor.  ii.  5]  might  drop  the  negative 
and  convey  the  same  meaning  :  "  He  hath  grieved 
me  but  in  part." 

"  Reason  itself  but  gives  it  edge  and  power." — Pope. 
"  Born  but  to  die,  and  reasoning  but  to  err." — Idem. 

73.  A   noun,    governing   the   possessive    plural, 
should  not  be  made  plural,  unless  the  sense  require 
it.     Thus :  say,  "  We  have  changed  our  mind"  if 
only  one  purpose  or  opinion  is  meant. 

A  noun,  taken  figuratively,  may  be  singular, 
when  the  literal  meaning  would  require  the  plural  : 
such  expressions  as  "  Their  face" — "  Their  neck" — 
"Their  hand" — "Their  head" — "Their  heart" — 
u  Our  mouth'1 — "  Our  life" — are  frequent  in  the 
Scriptures,  and  are  not  improper. 

74.  Never  say,  "  He  was  paid  the  money"  but, 
"  The  money  was^paid  him" 

75.  The  adjective  worth  is  followed  by  the  ob- 
jective case,  governed,  perhaps,  by  of  understood : 
as,  "  The  book  is  worth  a  sovereign."     Some  sup- 
pose that  worth  in  this  construction  is  a  noun,  and 
that  there  is  a  double   ellipsis  of  the  preposition  : 
as,  "  The  book  is  [of  the]  worth  [of]  a  sovereign." 
After  the  kindred  adjectives  worthy  and  unworthy, 


ON    DIFFICULT    POINTS.  67 

#/*  should  be  expressed:  as,  "It  is  worthy  of  re- 
mark.''— "  It  is  unworthy  of  notice/'  Worth  was 
anciently  a  verb  signifying  be,  and  was  used  in 
every  part  of  the  conjugation.  Some  traces  of  this 
usage  are  found  in  modern  writings :  as, 

"  Wo  worth  the  chase,  wo  worth  the  day, 
That  cost  thy  life,  my  gallant  gray !" — Scott. 

Here  worth  is  a  verb,  and  to  is  understood  after  it : 
the  meaning  being,  "  Wo  be  to  the  chase,"  &c. 

76.  In  connecting  words,  that  express  time,  the 
order  and  fitness  of  time  should  be  observed.    Thus : 
instead  of,  "  I  have  seen  him  last  week,'9  say,  "  I  saw 
him  last  week :"  and  instead   of,  "  I  saw  him  this 
week,"  say,  "I  have  seen  him  this  week" 

77.  Verbs    of   commanding,   desiring,    expecting, 
hoping,  intending,  permitting,  and  some  others,  in 
all  their  tenses  refer  to  actions  or  events,  relatively 
present   or  future:  one   should,   therefore,  say  "I 
hoped  you  would  come," — not  "would  have  come:" 
and,  "I  intended  to  do  it," — not,   "to  have  done 
it :"  &c. 

78.  Propositions,   that  are   at   all  times  equally 
true  or  false,  should  generally  be  expressed  in  the 
present  tense :  as,  "  He   seemed    hardly   to  know 
that  two  and  two  make  four,7' — not,  "  made." 

79.  Idiomatic    expressions    sometimes    occur,  in 
which  a  transitive   verb   is  used  intransitively  in 
a  sense  nearly  allied  to  the  passive  :  as,  "  The  goods 
sell   rapidly  :" — "  The    cloth    tears  : — "  Mahogany 
planes  smooth  :" — "  These  lines  read  well." 

80.  When  two  or  more  personal  pronouns  in  the 


68  MISCELLANEOUS    OBSERVATIONS 

second  person  are  employed  in  the  same  connection, 
they  should  be  made  to  correspond  in  style.  The 
following  passages  are,  therefore,  inaccurate: — 

1.  "Enjoy  your  dear  wit,  and  .gay  rhetoric, 

That  hath  so  well  been  taught  her  dazzling  fence  : 
Tliou  art  not  fit  to  hear  ^?/A>e//>convinced." — Milton. 
N.B.    Your  should  be  thy,  to  correspond  with  tlwu 
and  thyself. 

2.  "  As  in  that  loved  Athenian  bower, 

You  learned  an  all-commanding  power, 

Thy  mimic  soul,  O  nymph  endear'd, 

Can  well  recall  what  then  it  heard." — Collins. 

N.B.    Thy  should  be  your,  to  correspond  with  you. 

81.  We  sometimes  find  adverbs  used  after  the 
manner  of  nouns  :  as,  "  The  Son  of  man  hath  not 
where  to  lay  his  head." — Matt.  viii.  20.  "  The  Son 
of  God — was  not  yea  and  nay,  but  in  him  was  yea.11 
— 2  Cor.  i.  10.  "An  eternal  now  does  always  last." 
Cowley.  "  To  say  aye  and  no  to  every  thing  I 
said ! — Aye  and  no  too  was  no  good  divinity  I" — 
Shakspere.  "  Till  now  they  had  paid  no  taxes."- 
Inglis.  "On  the  following  day  Columbus  came  to 
where,  the  coast  swept  away  to  the  north-east  for 
many  leagues." — Irving.  "  Save  where  the  beetle 
wheels  his  droning  flight." — Gray.  "  Till  then,  who 
knew  the  force  of  those  dire  arms  ?" — Milton. 

N.  B.  At  once,  and  by  far,  are  in  general  use ; 
and  the  adverbial  phrases  from  hence,  from  thence, 
from  whence,  constitute  an  authorized  idiom.  Such 
expressions,  however,  as  from  where,  from  there,  to 
here,  from  far,  since  when,  since  then,  till  now,  are 


ON    DIFFICULT    POINTS.  69 

seldom  employed  by  the  best  prose  writers.      In 
poetry,  their  occurrence  is  more  frequent. 

82.  In  former  times,  the  infinitive  was  sometimes 
preceded  by  for  as  well  as  to  ;   as,  "  I  went  up  to 
Jerusalem  for  to  worship.'7 — Acts  xxiv.  11.    "What 
went  ye  out  for  to  see  V1 — Luke  vii.  2G. 

"Learn  skilfullie  how 
Each  grain  for  to  laie  by  itself  on  a  mow." 

Tusser. 

Modern  usage  rejects  the  former  preposition. 

83.  A  singular  nominative  and  an  objective  after 
with  are  sometimes  made  to  form  the  joint  subject 
of  a  plural  verb ;    as,  "  Pharaoh  with  all  his  host 
were  drowned  in  the  Eed  Sea."     This  copulative 
use  of  with  is  occasionally  adopted  by  good  writers ; 
it  would,  however,  be  better,  in  most  cases,  either 
to  put  and  in  the  place  of  with,  or  to  employ  the 
singular  form  of  the  verb.    Thus — instead  of  saying 
"  This  noble  ship,  with  her  gallant  crew,  were  buried 
beneath  the  waves,"  it  would  be  better  to  say — 
"  This  noble  ship  and  her  gallant  crew  were  buried 
beneath  the  waves."     So,  also — "  This  brave  officer, 
with  a  company  of  only  fifty  men,  have  succeeded 
in  quelling  the  insurrection,'7  would  be  better  ex- 
pressed by  saying;  "  This  brave  officer,  with  a  com- 
pany of  only  fifty  men,  has  succeeded  in  quelling 
the  insurrection." 

"  Examples  : — "  This  principle,  with  others  of 
the  same  kind,  supposes  man  to  act  from  a  brute 
impulse." — Johnson.  "  He  himself,  with  others, 
was  taken." — Moore.  "A  body  of  two  thousand 


70  MISCELLANEOUS    OBSERVATIONS 

men   succeeded  in  surprising  the  quarters  of  the 
Marquis     of  Cadiz,  who,  with  his  followers,  was 
exhausted  by  fatigue   and  watching." — Prescott. 
11  This  phraseology,"  says  Dr.  Crombie,  "  though 
not  strictly  consonant  with  the  rules  of  concord,  fre- 
quently obtains  both  in  ancient  and  modern  lan- 
guages ;  in  some  cases,  indeed,  it  seems  preferable 
to  the  syntactical  form  of  expression." 

84.  In  a  familiar  question  or  negation  the  com- 
pound form  of  the  verb  is  preferable  to  the  simple ; 
as,   "Does  he  come  to  town  every  week?"      Not 
"Comes  he  to  town,'1  &c?     But  in  the   solemn  or 
the  poetic  style,  the  simple  form  is  more  dignified 
and  graceful ;   as,  "  Under  sf,  and  est  thou   what   thou 
readest  ?"      " Of  whom  spcaketh  the  prophet  this?" 
— Acts  viii.  30,  34.     "  What !  Heard  ye  not  of  low- 
land war?"— Scott. 

85.  Some  grammarians  object  to  the  use  of  the 
numerals  two,  three,  four,  &c.,  before  the  adjectives 
first  and  last.      There  seems,  however,   to  be   no 
good  reason  for  the  objection,  and  the  expressions 
two  first,  three  last,  &c.,  are  fully  sanctioned  by 
good  usage. 

Examples  : — "  My  two  last  letters." — Addison. 
"  The  two  first  lines  are  uncommonly  beautiful.'7 — 
Blair.  "At  the  two  last  schools." — Johnson.  "The 
four  first  are  altogether  and  unequivocally  poet- 
ical."—  Cheever.  "The  three  first  of  his  longer 
poems.'1 — Southey. 

The  expressions  first  three,,  last  two,  &c,,  are  also 

iu  good  use,  and,  in  some  cases,  are  to  be  preferred, 

Examples  : — "The   first    eighteen    years." — 


ON    DIFFICULT    POINTS.  71 

Robertson.  "  The  history  of  the  world  for  the  last 
fifty  years." — Everett.  "During  the  last  seven 

or  eight  years." — Brougham. 

N.B. — "  It  has  been  fashionable  of  late  to  write 
the  first  three,  and  so  on,  instead  of  the  three  first. 
Persons  write  in  this  way  to  avoid  the  seeming  ab- 
surdity of  implying  that  more  than  one  thing  can  be 
the  first ;  but  it  is,  at  least,  equally  absurd  to  talk 
about  the  first  four,  when  [as  often  happens]  there 
is  no  second  four." — Arnold.  "  Surely,  if  there  can 
be  only  'one  last,'  'one  first,'  there  can  be  only  '  a 
last  one,'  '  a  first  one.'  I  need  only  observe  that 
usage  is  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  former  phrase- 
ology."— Grant.  "  The  only  argument  against  the 
use  of  two  first,  and  in  favor  of  substituting  first 
two,  so  far  as  I  can  recollect,  is  this  :  In  the  nature 
of  things,  there  can  be  only  one  first  and  one  last, 
in  any  series  of  things.  But — is  it  true  that  there 
can  never  be  more  than  one  first  and  one  last  ?  If 
it  be  so,  then  the  adjectives  first  and  last  must  al- 
ways be  of  the  singular  number,  and  can  never 
agree  with  nouns  in  the  plural.  We  are  told  that 
the  first  years  of  a  lawyer's  practice  are.  seldom 
very  lucrative.  The  poet  tells  us  that  his  first  es- 
says were  severely  handled  by  the  critics,  but  his 
last  efforts  have  been  well  received.  Examples  like 
these  might  be  produced  without  number.  They 
occur  every  \\her 3  in  all  our  standard  writers.  .  .  . 
When  a  numeral  adjective  and  a  qualifying  epithet 
both  refer  to  the  same  noun,  the  general  rule  of  the 
English  language  is  to  place  the  numeral  first,  then 
the  qualifying  epithet,  and  afterwards  the  noun. 


72  MISCELLANEOUS    OBSERVATIONS 

Tkus  we  say,  '  the  two  ivise  men,'  *  the  two  tall 
men;'  and  not  'the  wise  two  men/  *  the  tall  two 
men.'  And  the  same  rule  holds  in  superlatives. 
We  say  '  the  two  wisest  men/  '  the  two  tallest  men;' 
and  not  *  the  wisest  two  men/  'the  tallest  two  men/ 
Now  if  this  be  admitted  to  be  the  general  rule  of 
the  English  language,  it  then  follows  that  we  should 
generally  say,  '  the  two  first,'  '  the  two  last'  &c., 
rather  than  li\\v first  two,'  'the  last  two,1  &c.  This, 
I  say,  should  generally  be  the  order  of  the  words. 
Yet  there  are  some  cases  in  which  it  seems  prefer- 
able to  say,  '  the  first  two,'  l  the  first  three,'  &c." — • 
Dr.  Murdoch. 

86.  "  Of  the  two  forms,  'him  excepted'  and  'he  cx- 
cepted,'  the  former  [contrary  to  the  sentiment  of  the 
majority  of  grammarians]    is  the    correct    one." — 
Latham. 

87.  His  was  formerly  employed  as  the  possessive 
both  of  he  and  it. 

Examples  : — "  Put  up  again  thy  sword  into  his 
place/' — Matt.  xxvi.  52.  "  Learning  hath  his 
infancy,  when  it  is  but  beginning,  and  almost 
childish." — Bacon. 

N.B. — "The  possessive  its  does  not  appear  before 
the  seventeenth  century." — Booth.  "Its  is  not 
found  in  the  Bible,  except  by  misprint." — Brown. 

88.  Who   is    usually    applied   to  persons   only ; 
which,  though  formerly  applied  to  persons,  is  now 
confined    to  animals   and  inanimate  things ;    what 
[as  a  mere  pronoun]  is  applied  to  things  only ;  that 
is  applied  indifferently  to  persons,  animals  or  things. 

89.  The  word  than  was  formerly  used  as  a  pre- 


ON    DIFFICULT    POINTS.  73 

position,  and  still  retains  this  character  in  the  phrase 
than  whom;  as,  " Beelzebub,  than  whom,  Satan  ex- 
cept, none  higher  sat.'* — Milton. 

OBS. — The  phrase  than  which  is  also  sometimes 
used  in  a  similar  manner;  as,  "  A  work  than  which 
the  age  has  certainly  produced  none  more  sure  of 
bequeathing  its  author's  name  to  the  admiration 
of  future  times." — Russell. 

90.  The  second  person  singular  of  the  simple  verb 
do  is  now  usually  written  dost ;  being  contracted  in 
orthography   as  well  as   in   pronunciation.      This 
anomaly  seems  unnecessary.     In  the  words  undoest 
and  overdoest  no  contraction  takes  place. 

91.  An  is  sometimes  a  conjunction  signifying  if; 
as,  "Nay,  an  thou'lt  mouthe,   I'll  rant  as  well  as 
thou." — Sha&spere. 

92.  To  express  a  reciprocal  action  or  relation,  the 
pronominal  adjectives  each  other  and  one  another  are 
employed;  as,  "  They  love  each  other;" — "They 
love  one  another"     The  words  separately  considered 
are  singular ;  but  taken  together,  they  imply  plu- 
rality; and  they  can  be  properly  construed  only 
after  plurals,  or  singulars  taken  conjointly.     EacJi 
other  is  usually  applied  to  two  objects ;  and  one  an- 
other to  more  than  two.     The  terms,  though  recip- 
rocal and  closely  united,  are  never  in  the  same  con- 
struction.    If  such  expressions  be  analyzed,  each 
and  one  will  generally  appear  to  be  in  the  nomina- 
tive case,  and  other  in   the   objective;    a&,   "'They 
love  each  other  ;"  that  is,  each  loves  the  other.  Each 
is   properly   in  apposition  with   they,  and  other  is 
governed  by  the  verb.     The  terms,  however,  admit 


74  MISCELLANEOUS    OBSERVATIONS 

of  other  constructions  ;  as,  "  Be  ye  helpers  one  of 
another" — Bible.  Here  one  is  in  apposition  with 
ye,  and  another  is  governed  by  of.  "  Ye  are  one 
another's  joy." — Bible.  Here  one  is  in  apposition 
with  ye,  and  another's  is  in  the  possessive  case,  being 
governed  by  joy.  "  Love  will  make  you  one  an- 
other's joy."  Here  one  is  in  the  objective  case, 
being  in  apposition  with  you,  and  another }s  is  gov- 
erned as  before.  The  Latin  terms  alius,  alium,  alii, 
olios,  &c.,  sufficiently  confirm  this  doctrine. 

93.  When  the  verb  has  different  forms,  that  form 
should  be  adopted  which  is  the  most  consistent  with 
present  and  reputable  usage,  in  the  style  employed  ; 
thus,  to  say  familiarly,  "  The  clock  hath  stricken  ;" 
"  Thou  laughedst  and  talhcdst  when  thon  oughtest 
to  have  been  silent ;" — "  ^Hizreadcth  smdwritetk,  but 
he  doth  not  cipher,"  would  be  no  better  than  to  use 
dont,  won't,  can't,  shan't,  and  didn't  in  preaching. 

94.  Adjectives    should   be    employed   to    qualify 
nouns  and  pronouns,  and  adverbs  to  modify  verbs, 
adjectives,  and  other  adverbs.     It  is  therefore  incor- 
rect to  say,  "  She  writes  elegant;" — "Thine  often  in- 
firmities." 

95.  Conjunctions  should  not  be  unnecessarily  ac- 
cumulated ;  as,  "But  AND  if  that  evil  servant  shall 
say  in  his  heart,"  &c. — Matt.  xxiv.  48. 

96.  Those  verbs  and  participles  which  require  a 
regimen,  should  not  be   employed  without  it  ;  as, 
•'  She  endeavored  to  ingratiate  [herself]  with    the 
family  ;" — "  I  will  not  allow  of  it."       Leave  out  of. 

97.  Those  verbs  and  participles  which  do  not  ad- 
mit a  regimen  should  not  be  used  transitively ;  as, 


ON    DIFFICULT    POINTS.  75 

"  The  planters  grow  cotton :"  say  raise,  or  culti- 
vate. 

N.B. — Some  verbs,  however,  may  govern  a  kin- 
dred noun,  or  its  pronoun,  but  no  other;  as,  "He 
lived  &  virtuous  life;" — "Hear,  I  pray  you,  this 
dream  which  I  have  dreamed" — Gen.  xxxvii.  6. 

98.  Beside  should  be  used  as  a  preposition,  and 
besides  only  as  an  adverb. 

99.  Passive  verbs  of  asking,  giving,  teaching,  and 
some  others,  are  often  employed  to  govern  a  noun 
or  pronoun  in  the  objective. 

Examples : — "  He   was  asked  his   opinion" — 
Johnson. 

"  They  were  denied  the  indulgence" — Macaulay. 
"  He  was  taught  the  science  in  its  strictly  logical 
form  ;" — "  They  had  been  refused  shelter;" — "And 
all  are  taught  an  avarice  of  praise." — Goldsmith. 

100.  There  are  some  verbs  which  may  be  used 
either  transitively  or  intransitively  ;   as,  "  He  will 
return  in  a  week;" — "He  will  return  the  book;" — 
"  The  wind   blows  violently  ;" — "  The  wind  blows 
the  chaff'." 

101.  Mussulmen  is  used  by  many  writers  as  the 
plural  of  Mussulman,  which  is  decidedly  incorrect. 
We  say  Frenchmen^  Dutchmen,  Irishmen,  &c.,  and 
not   Frenchmans,   Dutchmans,    Irishmans,   because 
Frenchman,  Dutchman,  and  Irishman  are  respect- 
ively compounded  of  French  and  man,   Dutch    and 
wan,  Irish  and  man,  and  because  men  is  the  plural 
of  man.     But,  as  to  the  word  Mussulman,  though  it 
may  be  a   compound  in  the  Arabic,  in  which  lan- 
guage it  signifies  a  believer  in  the  true  rdi  ion,  yet 


76  MISCELLANEOUS    OBSERVATIONS. 

considered  as  an  English  word,  it  is  not  compoun- 
ded, but  simple,  as  we  have  no  such  word  as  Mussul 
in  the  English  tongue. 

It  is  the  same  with  the  words  Ottoman  and  Ger- 
man, which,  considered  as  English  wordsr  are  not 
compounded,  whatever  they  may  be  in  the  countries 
where  they  were  coined.  We,  therefore,  say*  Otto- 
mans and  Germans  in  the  plural ;  and  no  one  ever 
yet  took  it  into  his  head  to  say  Ottomen  or  Ger- 
men.  ' 

We  ought,  on  the  same  principle,  to  say  Mussul- 
mans in  the  plural,  and  not  Mussulman. 

10,2.  Co-  ought  to  be  used  only  when  the  word 
with  which  it  is  joined  begins  with  a  vowel,  as  in 
co-eval,  co-existent,  co-incident,  co-operate,  &c.  Con-, 
when  the  word  begins  with  a  consonant,  as  in  con- 
temporary, conjuncture,  &c.  There  is  but  one  ex- 
ception, which  is  co-partner. 

103.  Extemporary  is  preferable  as  an  adjective  to 
extempore,  which  is  properly  an  adverb,  and  ought, 
for  the  sake  of  precision,  to  be  confined  to  that  use. 
Thus  we  say  with  propriety,  an  extemporary  prayer, 
an  extemporary  sermon  ;  but,  he  prays  extempore,  he 
preaches  extempore.    On  the  same  principle,  scarcely 
as  an  adverb  ought  to  be  preferred  to  scarce,  which 
is  an   adjective  ;   and  exceedingly  as  an   adverb,  to 
exceeding,  which  is  a  participle. 

104.  When  this  and  that  are  used  in  the  sense  of 
former  and  latter,  this   and  these  correspond  with 

latter,  that  and  those  with  former. 

Exa?nplcs: — "  Religion  raises  men  above  them- 
selves ;  irreligion  sinks  them  beneath  the  brutes; 


ERRORS,    INACCURACIES,    ETC.  77 

this  [if religion]  binds  them  down  to  a  pitiable 
speck  of  earth,  that  [religion]  opens  for  them  a 
prospect  to  the  skies." 

"  The  palaces  and  lofty  domes  arose  ; 

These  for  devotion,  and  for  pleasure  those" 
Pope. 

HINTS  ON   THE  CURRENT  IMPROPRIETIES   OF  EX- 
PRESSION IN  WRITING  AND  SPEAKING, 

WITH  RULES  FOR  THEIR  CORRECTION. 

1.  SOME  people  speak  of  "  so  many  spoonsfull" 
instead  of  "  so  many  spoonfuls."     The  rule  on  this 
subject  says,  "  Compounds  ending  in  ful,  and   all 
those  in  which  the  principal  word  is  put  last,  form 
the  plural  in  the  same  manner  as  other  nouns  ;    as 
"  handfuls,  spoonfuls,  mouthfuls,"  etc.,  etc. 

Logic  will  demonstrate  the  propriety  of  this  rule  : 
— Are  you  measuring  by  a  plurality  of  spoons  ?  If 
so,  "  so  many  spoonsful! "  must  be  the  correct  term ;. 
but  if  the  process  of  measuring  be  effected  by  re- 
filling the  same  spoon,  then  it  becomes  evident  that 
the  precise  idea  meant  to  be  conveyed  is,  the  quan- 
tity contained  in  the  vessel  by  which  it  is  measured,, 
which  is  a  "spoonful" 

CURRENT    IMPROPRIETIES    OF   EXPRESSION. 

2.  It  is  a  common  mistake  to  speak  of   "  a  dis- 
agreeable effluvia."     This  word  is  effluvium  in  the 
singular,  and  effluvia  in  the  plural.     The  same  rule 
should  be  observed  with  automaton,  arcanum,  erra- 
tum, phenomenon,  memorandum,  and  several  others 
which  are   less  frequently  used,  and  which  change 

7* 


78  FALSE    SYNTAX. 

the  um  or  on  into  a,  to  form  the  plural.  It  is  so 
common  a  thing,  however,  to  say  memorandums 9 
that  I  fear  it  would  sound  a  little  pedantic,  in  collo- 
quial style,  to  use  the  word  memoranda  ;  and  it  is 
desirable,  perhaps,  that  custom  should  make  an  ex- 
ception of  this  word,  as  well  as  of  encomium,  and 
allow  two  terminations  to  it,  according  to  the  taste 
of  the  speaker  and  the  style  of  the  discourse : 
memorandums  or  memoranda,  like  encomiums  or 
encomia. 

3.  We  have  heard  pulse  and  patience  treated  as 
pluralities,  much  to  our  astonishment. 

4.  It  seems  to  be  a  position  assumed  by  all  gram- 
marians, that  their  readers  already  understand  the 
meaning  of  the  word  "  case/'  as   applied  to  nouns 
and  pronouns  ;  hence,  they  never  enter  into  a  clear 
explanation  of   the  simple  term,  but    proceed    at 
once  to  a  discussion  of  its  grammatical  distinctions, 
in  which  it  frequently  happens  that  the  student, 
for  want  of  a  little  introductory  explanation,  is  un- 
able to  accompany  them.     But  I  am  not  going  to 
repeat  to  the   scholar  how  the  term  "  case  "  is  de- 
rived from  a  Latin  word  signifying  "to  fall,"  and 
is  so  named  because  all  the  other  cases  fall  or  de- 
cline from  the  nominative,  in  order  to  express  the 
various  relations  of  nouns  to  each  other — which  in 
Latin  they  do   by   a  difference  of  termination,  in 
English  by  the  aid  of  prepositions ;    and  that  an 
orderly  arrangement  of  all  these  different  termina- 
tions is  called  the  declension  of  a  noun,  etc.,  etc.  etc. 
I  am  not  going  to  repeat  to  the  scholar  the  things 
he  already  knows;  but  to  you,  my  gentle  readers. 


ERRORS,  INACCURACIES,  ETC.  79 

to  whom  Latin  is  still  an  unknown  tongue,  to  whom 
grammars  are  become  obsolete  things,  and  gram- 
matical definitions  would  be  bewildering  prelimina- 
ries, "  more  honoured  in  the  breach  than  in  the  ob- 
servance " — to  you  I  am  anxious  to  explain,  in  the 
clearest  manner  practicable,  all  the  mysteries  of 
this  case,  because  it  was  a  cruel  perplexity  to  my- 
self in  days  of  yore.  And  I  will  endeavour  to  make 
my  lecture  as  brief  and  clear  as  possible,  request- 
ing you  to  bear  in  mind  that  no  knowledge  is  to  be 
acquired  without  a  little  trouble  ;  and  that  whoso- 
ever may  consider  it  too  irksome  a  task  to  exert 
the  understanding  for  a  short  period,  must  be  con- 
tent to  remain  in  inexcusable  and  irremediable 
ignorance.  Though  I  doubt  not,  when  you  come 
to  perceive  how  great  the  errors  are  which  you 
daily  commit,  you  will  not  regret  having  sat  down 
quietly,  for  half  an  hour,  to  listen  to  an  unscholas- 
tic  exposition  of  them. 

5.  We  all  understand  the  meaning  of  the  word 
"  case,"  as  it  is  applied  to  the  common  affairs  of  life  ; 
but  when  we  meet  with  it  in  our  grammars  we 
view  it  as  an  abstruse  term;  we  won't  consent  to 
believe  that  it  means  nothing  more  than  position  of 
affairs,  condition,  or  circumstances,  any  one  of 
which  words  might  be  substituted  for  it  with  equal 
propriety,  if  it  were  not  indispensable  in  grammar 
to  adhere  strictly  to  the  same  term  when  we  wish  to 
direct  the  attention  unerringly  to  the  same  thing, 
and  to  keep  the  understanding  alive  to  the  justness 
of  its  application ;  whilst  a  multiplicity  of  names 
to  one  thing  would  be  likely  to  create  confusion. 


80  FALSE    SYNTAX. 

Thus,  if  one  were  to  say  "  this  is  a  very  hard  case:" 
or  "  a  singular  case  occurred  the  other  day ;"  or 
"that  poor  man's  case  is  a  very  deplorable  one;" 
we  should  readily  comprehend  that  by  the  word 
"  case  "  was  meant  circumstance,"  or  "  situation;" 
and  when  we  speak,  in  the  language  of  the  gram- 
mar, of  "  a  noun  in  the  nominative  case,"  we  only 
mean  a  person  or  thing  placed  in  such  circumstances 
as  to  become  merely  named,  or  named  as  the  per- 
former of  some  action;  as  lf  the  man;"  or  "  the 
man  walks."  In  both  these  sentences,  "  man  "  is 
in  the  nominative  case;  because,  in  the  first  he  is 
simply  named,  without  reference  to  any  circum- 
stance respecting  him  ;  and  in  the  second  he  is 
named  as  the  performer  of  the  act  of  walking  men- 
tioned. When  we  speak  of  a  noun  in  the  posses- 
sive case,  we  simply  mean  a  person  or  thing  placed 
under  such  circumstances  as  to  become  named  as  the 
possessor  of  something;  and  when  we  speak  of  a  noun 
in  the  objective  case,  we  only  intend  to  express  a 
person  or  thing  standing  in  such  a  situation  as  to  be, 
in  some  way  or  other,  affected  by  the  act  of  some 
other  person  or  thing;  as,  "  Henry  teaches  Charles." 
Here  Henry  is,  by  an  abbreviation  of  terms,  called 
tJie  no?ninative  case  (instead  of  the  noun  in  the  nom- 
inative case),  because  ho  stands  in  that  situation  in 
which  it  is  incumbent  on  us  to  name  him  as  the 
performer  of  the  act  of  teaching  ;  and  Charles  is, 
by  the  same  abbreviating  license,  called  the  objec- 
tive case)  because  he  is  in  such  a  position  of  affairs 
as  to  Twelve  the  act  of  teaching  which  Henry  per- 
forms. I  will  now  tell  you  liow  you  may  always 


ERRORS,  INACCURACIES,  ETC.  81 

distinguish  the  three  cases  :  read  the  sentence  at- 
tentively, and  understand  accurately  what  the 
nouns  are  represented  as  doing :  if  any  person  or 
thing  be  represented  as  performing  an  action,  that 
person  or  thing  is  a  noun  in  the  nominative  case ; 
if  any  person  or  thing  be  represented  as  possessing 
something,  that  person  or  thing  is  a  noun  in  the  : 
possessive  case  ;  and  if  any  person  or  thing  be  rep- 
resented as  neither  performing  nor  possessing,  it  is  a 
noun  in  the  objective  case,  whether  directly  or  in- 
directly affected  by  the  action  of  the  nominative, 
because  as  we  have  in  English  but  three  cases, 
which  contain  the  substance  of  the  six  Latin  cases, 
whatever  is  neither  nominative  or  possessive  must  be 
objective.  Here  I  might  wander  into  a  long  di- 
gression on  passive  and  neuter  verbs,  which  I  may 
seem  to  have  totally  overlooked  in  the  principle 
just  laid  down  ;  but  I  am  not  writing  a  Grammar, 
nor  attempting  to  illustrate  the  various  ramifications 
of  grammatical  laws  to  people  who  know  nothing 
at  all  about  them — any  more  than  I  am  writing  for 
the  edification  of  the  accomplished  scholar  to  whom 
purity  of  diction  is  already  familiar.  I  am  writing, 
chiefly,  for  that  vast  portion  of  the  educated  classes 
who  have  never  looked  into  a  grammar  since  their 
school-days  were  over,  but  who  have  ingeniously 
hewn  out  for  themselves  a  middle  path  between  ig- 
norance and  knowledge,  and  to  whom  certain  little 
hillocks  in  their  Way  have  risen  up,  under  a  dense 
atmosphere,  to  the  magnitude  of  mountains :  I 
merely  wish  to  give  to  them,  since  they  will  not 
take  the  trouble  to  search  for  themselves,  one  broad 


82  FALSE    SYNTAX. 

« 

and  general  principle,  unclogged  by  exceptions,  to 
guide  them  to  propriety  of  speech  ;  and,  should 
they  afterwards  acquire  a  taste  for  grammatical  dis- 
putation, they  will  of  course  apply  to  more  exten- 
sive sources  for  the  necessary  qualifications. 

6.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  commit  any  inaccu- 
racy in  the  use  of  these  cases  when  restricted  to 
nouns,  but  in  the  application  of  them  to  pronouns  a 
woful  confusion  often  arises ;  though  even  in  this 
confusion  exists  a  marked  distinction  between  the 
errors  of  the  ill-bred  and  those  of  the  well-bred 
man.  To  use  the  objective  instead  of  the  nomina- 
tive is  a  vulgar  error  ;  to  use  the  nominative  instead 
of  the  objective  is  a  genteel  error.  No  person  of  de- 
cent education  would  think  of  saying  "  Him  and 
me  are  going  to  the  play."  Yet  how  often  do  we 
hear  even  well-educated  people  say  "  They  Avere 
coming  to  see  my  brother  and  /,-"  "  The  claret 
will  be  packed  in  two  baskets  for  Mr.  Smith  and  I/' 
"  Let  you  and  I  try  to  move  it ;"  "  Let  him  and  I 
go  up  and  speak  to  them."  "  Between  you  and  I," 
etc.,  etc.  All  faults  as  heinous  as  that  of  the  vul- 
garian who  says  "  Him  and  me  are  going  to  the 
play," — and  with  less  excuse.  Two  minutes'  re- 
flection will  enable  the  scholar  to  correct  himself, 
and  a  little  exercise  of  memory  will  shield  him 
from  a  repetition  of  the  fault ;  but  for  the  benefit  of 
those  who  may  not  be  scholars,  we  will  accompany 
him  through  the  mazes  of  his  reflections.  Who 
are  the  persons  who  are  performing  the  act  of 
"  coming  to  see  ?"  "  They"  Then  the  pronoun 
they  must  stand  in  the  nominative  case.  Who  are 


ERRORS,  INACCURACIES,  ETC.  83 

the  persons  to  whom  the  act  of  "  coming  to  see"  ex- 
tends ?  "my  brother  and-  I."  Then  "  my  brother 
and  I,"  being  the  objects  affected  by  the  act  of  the 
nominative,  must  be  a  noun  and  pronoun  standing 
in  the  objective  case ;  and  as  nouns  are  not  suscep- 
tible of  change  on  account  of  cases,  it  is  only  the 
pronoun  which  requires  alteration  to  render  the 
sentence  correct :  "  They  were  coming  to  see  my 
brother  and  me.''  The  same  argument  is  applicable 
to  the  other  examples  given.  In  no  language  is 
the  imperative  mood  of  a  verb  conjugated  with  a 
pronoun  in  the  nominative  case,  therefore  "  Let 
you  and  /try  to  move  it,"  "  Let  him  and  /go  up 
and  speak  to  them,"  are  manifest  improprieties. 
A  very  simple  test  may  be  formed  by  taking  away 
the  first  noun  or  pronoun  from  the  sentence  alto- 
gether, and  bringing  the  verb  or  preposition  right 
against  that  pronoun  which  you  use  to  designate 
yourself:  thus,  "They  were  coming  to  see  1 ;" 
"  The  claret  will  be  packed  in  two  hampers  for  1 ;" 
"  Let  /try  to  move  it,"  etc.  By  this  means  your 
own  ear  will  correct  you,  without  any  reference  to 
grammatical  rules.  And  bear  in  mind  that  the 
number  of  nouns  it  may  be  necessary  to  press  into 
the  sentence  will  not  alter  the  case  respecting  the 
pronouns. 

"  Between  you  and  I/>  is  as  erroneous  an  ex- 
pression as  any  :  change  the  position  of  the  pro- 
nouns, and  say,  "  Between  I  and  you ;"  or  change 
the  sentence  altogether,  and  say  "  Between  I  and 
the  wall  there  was  a  great  gap  ;"  and  you  will  soon 
see  in  what  case  the  first  person  should  be  ren- 


84  FALSE    SYNTAX. 

dered.  "  Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case/' 
therefore  it  is  impossible  to  put  a  nominative  after 
a  preposition  without  a  gross  violation  of  a  rule 
which  ought  to  be  familiar  to  everybody. 

7.  The  same  mistake  extends  to  the  relative  pro- 
nouns "  who"  and  "whom  :"  we  seldom  hear  the 
objective  case  used  either  by  vulgar  or  refined 
speakers.  "  Who  did  you  give  it  to?"  "  Who  is 
this  for?"  are  solecisms  of  daily  occurrence  ;  and 
when  the  objective  "  whom"  is  used,  it  is  generally 
put  in  the  wrong  place  ;  as  "  The  person  whom  I 
expected  would  purchase  that  estate ;"  "  The  man 
whom  they  intend  shall  execute  that  work."  This 
intervening  verb  in  each  sentence,  "  I  expected  " 
and  "  they  intend,"  coming  between  the  last  verb 
and  its  own  nominative  (the  relative  pronoun),  has 
no  power  to  alter  the  rule,  and  no  right  to  violate 
it ;  but  as  the  introduction  of  an  intervening  verb, 
in  such  situations,  is  likely  to  beguile  the  ear  and 
confuse  the  judgment,  it  would  be  better  to  avoid 
such  constructions  altogether,  and  turn  the  sentence 
a  different  way  ;  as  "  The  person  whom  I  expected 
to  be  the  purchaser  of  that  estate ;"  "  The  man 
whom  they  intend  to  execute  that  work."  If  the 
reader  will  cut  off  the  intervening  verb,  which  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  construction  of  the  sentence 
except  to  mystify  it,  he  will  perceive  at  a  glance 
the  error  and  its  remedy :  "  The  person  whom 
would  purchase  that  estate  ;"  "  The  man  whom 
shall  execute  that  work." 

This  fault  is  wholly  chargeable  upon  the  should- 
ers of  the  educated  idle  ;  for,  except  in  interrogative 


ERRORS,    INACCURACIES,  ETC.  85 

sentences,  vulgar  people  generally  use  the  relative 
"which  "  in  both  cases,  and  say,  "  The  man  which 
paid  me  the  money  ;"  "  The  man  which  the  money 
was  paid  to.19 

8.  But  though  illiterate  people  may  say  which, 
instead  of  who  and  whom,  with  impunity,  there  is 
something  too  repugnant  to  good  taste,  too  deroga- 
tory to  understanding,  in  the  use  of  a  superfluous 
'*  which,"  in  such  sentences  as  the  following,  from 
the  lips  of   persons  of   respectable  education  :   "  I 
know  a  lady  living  at  Eichmond,   who  had   two 
daughters,  which  the  eldest  married  a  captain  in  the 
navy ;"  "  I  was  going  to  the  bookseller's  when  I 
met  Edward,  which  I  had  no  idea  he  had  returned 
to  town.7'     Will  anybody  have  the  kindness  to  ex- 
plain   the    utility    of    this  '  gratuitous    "  which  ?" 
When   people  have  not    had    the    opportunity  of 
learning,  ignorance  is  excusable ;  but  in  ladies  and 
gentlemen  who  sin  with  their   eyes  open — "  Oh  ! 
the  offence  is  rank." 

9.  It  is  very  easy  to   mistake   the   nominative 
when  another  noun  comes  between  it  and  the  verb, 
which  is  frequently  the  case  in   the  use  of  the  in- 
definite   and  distributive    pronouns, — as  "  One  of 
those  houses  were  sold  last  week;"  "  Each  of  the 
daughters  are  to  have  a  separate  share  ;"  "  Every 
tree  in  those  plantations  have  been  injured  by  the 
storm  ;"    "  Either  of  the  children  are  at  liberty  to 
claim  it."     Here  it  will  be  perceived  that  the  pro- 
nouns "  one,"  "  each,"  "  every,"  "  either,"  are  the 
true  nominatives  to  the  verbs  ;  but  the  intervening 
noun  in  the  plural  number,  in  each  sentence,  deludes 


86  FALSE    SYNTAX. 

the  ear,  and  the  speaker,  without  reflection,  renders 
the  verb  in  the  plural  instead  of  the  singular  num- 
ber. The  same  error  is  often  committed  when  no 
second  noun  appears  to  plead  an  apology  for  the 
fault ;  as  "  Each  city  have  their  peculiar  privileges;" 
"  Everybody  has  a  right  to  look  after  tlmr  own  in- 
terest ;"  "  Either  are  at  liberty  to  claim  it."  This 
is  the  effect  of  pure  carelessness. 

10.  There  is  another  very  common  error,  the  re- 
verse of  the  last-mentioned,  which  is  that  of  ren- 
dering the  adjective  pronoun  in  the  plural  number 
instead  of  the  singular  in  such  sentences  as  the  fol- 
lowing :    "  These   kind  of   entertainments  are    not 
conducive  to  general  improvement ;"   "  Those,  sort  of 
experiments    are    often    dangerous."      This    error 
seems  to  originate  in  the  habit  which  people  insen- 
sibly acquire  of  supposing  the  prominent  noun  in 
the  sentence  (such  as  "entertainments"  or  "ex- 
periments") to  be  the  noun  qualified  by  the  adjec- 
tive "  these  "  or  "  those  ;"    instead  of  which  it  is 
"  kind,"  "  sort/"  or  any  word  of  that   description 
immediately  following  the  adjective,  which  should 
be  so  qualified,  and  the  adjective  must  be  made  to 
agree  with  it  in  the  singular  number.     We  confess, 
it  is  not  so  agreeable  to  the  ear  to  say  "  This  kind 
of  entertainments,"  "  That  sort  of  experiments ;"  but 
it  would  be  easy  to   give  the   sentence  a  different 
form,    and    say   "Entertainments    of    this   kind;" 
"  Experiments  of  that  sort ;"  by  which  the  requi- 
sitions of  grammar  would  be  satisfied,  and  those  of 
euphony  too. 

11.  But  the  grand  fault,  the  glaring  impropriety, 


ERRORS,  INACCURACIES,  ETC.  87 

committed  by  "  all  ranks  and  conditions  of  men," 
rich  and  poor,  high  and  low,  illiterate  and  learned, 
— except,  perhaps,  one  in  twenty — and  from  which 
not  even  the  pulpit  or  the  bar  is  totally  free — is  the 
substitution  of  the  active  verb  lay  for  the  neuter 
verb  lie  (to  lie  down).  The  scholar  knows  that 
"  active  verbs  govern  the  objective  case,"  and  there- 
fore demand  an  objective  case  after  them;  and  that 
neuter  verbs  will  not  admit  an  objective  case  after 
them  except  through  the  medium  of  a  preposition : 
he,  therefore,  has  no  excuse  for  his  error,  it  is  a  wil- 
ful one — for  him  the  following  is  not  written  ;  and 
here  I  may  as  well  say,  onte  for  all,  that  whilst  I 
would  remind  the  scholar  of  his  lapses,  my  instruc- 
tions and  explanations  are  offered  only  to  the  class 
which  requires  them. 

Murray  has  nicely  divided  active  verbs  into  ac- 
tive-transitive and  active-mtransitive,  leaving  the 
term  neuter  to  comprise  the  se  verbs  which  signify 
a  state  of  existence  without  action ;  as  "  I  sleep," 
"  I  sit,"  "  I  grow,"  "  I  lie,"  "  I  die,"  etc.  The 
words  transitive  and  mtransitive  seem  to  me  to  ex- 
plain themselves,  for  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that 
"  transitive  "  or  transitory,  means  passing  away; 
and  that  "  intransitive  "  means  not  passing  away. 
The  term  active-transitive  is  applied  only  to  such 
verbs  as  describe  an  action  taking  place  in  one  per- 
son or  thing  upon  or  towards  another  person  or 
thing,  without  requiring  the  aid  of  a  preposition  to 
express  it,  as  "  I  love  George."  Here  the  act  of 
loving  is  performed  by  me,  but  its  effect  is  not  con- 
fined to  me,  because  it  passes  over  to  or  concerns 


88  FALSE    SYNTAX. 

George,  who  thereby  stands  in  the  objective  case 
because  he  is  the  object  affected  by  another  person's 
act.  You  perceive,  therefore,  that  "  to  love"  is  an 
active  verb  requiring  an  objective  case  after  it;  and 
will  now  know  the  meaning  of  the  expression  "  ac- 
tive verbs  govern  the  objective  case,"  because,  if  I 
love  at  all,  I  must  love  something  or  somebody,  I 
cannot  love  nothing. 

An  active  intransitive  verb  is  the  very  reverse  of 
this,  because,  not  admitting  an  objective  case  after 
it,  unless  preceded  by  a  preposition,  the  action 
which  the  verb  describes  has  no  object  on  which 
immediately  to  fall  or  Become  transferred  to  (keep 
in  mind  the  connexion  between  this  word  and  trans- 
itive,) as  "  I  laugh."  Here  the  act  is  confined  to 
the  source  in  which  it  originates  ;  I  cannot  say  "  I 
laugh  George;"  or  "I  laugh  you;"  I  am  not 
obliged  to  find  an  objective  case  for  it  at  all,  I  may 
laugli  from  an  emotion  of  the  mind,  or  I  may  laugh, 
as  thousands  daily  do,  and  not  know  why.  But  if 
I  am  disposed  to  find  an  objective  case  for  it,  I  can- 
not do  it  without  the  intervention  of  a  preposition, 
an  adverb,  or  some  other  part  of  speech,  as  "  I 
laugh  at  such  things,"  "  I  laugh  heartily,"  etc. 

The  neuter  verb  obeys  the  same  law  as  the  ac- 
tive intransitive,  as  "  I  sit,"  or  "  I  sit  on  a  chair ;" 
"I  sleep,"  or  "I  sleep  uneasily;"  "I  grow,"  or 
"  I  grow  very  slowly  /"  "  I  lie,"  or  "  I  lie  doitm  ;" 
"  I  lie  on  a  sofa." 

"  To  lay  "  is  an  active  transitive  verb,  like  love, 
demanding  an  objective  case  after  it,  ivithout  the 
intervention  of  a  preposition.  "  To  lie  "  is  a  neuter 


ERRORS,  INACCURACIES,  ETC.  89 

verb,  not  admitting  an  objective  case  after  it,  except 
through  the  intervention  of  a  ftrcposition  ; — yet  this 
"perverse  generation"  will  go  OH  substituting  the 
former  for  the  latter.  Notlmig  can  be  mo;e  errone- 
ous than  to  say,  as  people  constantly  do,  "I  shall 
go  and  lay  down."  The  question  which  naturally 
arises  in  the  m'nd  of  the  discriminating  hearer,  is 
"  What  are  you  going  to  lay  down  ?  money,  car- 
pets, plans,  or  what  ?"  for,  as  a  transitive  verb  is 
used,  an  object  is  wanted  to  complete  the  sense. 
The  speaker  means,  in  fact,  to  tell  us  that  lie  (him- 
self) is  gning  to  lie  down,  instead  of  which  he  gives 
us  to  understand  that  he  is  going  to  lay  down,  or 
put  down,  something  which  he  has  not  named,  but 
which  it  is  necessary  to  name  before  we  can  un- 
derstand the  sentence ;  and  this  sentence,  when 
completed  according  to  the  rules  of  grammar,  will 
never  convey  the  meaning  he  intends.  One  might 
as  well  use  the  verb  "  to  put "  in  this  situation,  as 
the  verb  "  to  lay,"  for  each  is  a  transitive  veib  re- 
quiring an  objective  case  immediately  after  it.  If 
you  were  to  enter  a  room,  and,  finding  a  person 
lying  on  a  sofa,  were  to  address  him  with  such  a 
question  as  "  What  are  you  doing  there  ?"  you 
would  think  it  ludicrous  if  he  were  to  reply  "  1  am 
putting  down;"  yet  it  would  not  be  more  absurd 
than  to  say  "  I  am  laying  down  ;"  but  custom, 
whilst  it  fails  to  reconcile  us  to  the  error,  has  so 
familiarised  us  with  it,  that  we  hear  it  without  sur- 
prise, and  good  breeding  forbids  our  noticing  it  to 
the  speaker.  The  same  mistake  is  committed 
through  all  the  tenses  of  the  verb :  how  often  are 


90  FALSE    SYNTAX. 

nice  ears  wounded  by  the  following  expressions, 
"  My  brother  lays  ill  of  a  fever ;"  "  The  vessel 
lays  in  Brooklyn  Docks  ;"  "  The  books  were  lay- 
ing  on  the  floor  ;"  "  He  laid  on  a  sofa  three  weeks  ;" 
"  After  I  had  laid  down,  I  remembered  that  I  had 
left  my  pistols  laying  on  the  table."  You  must 
perceive  that,  in  every  one  of  these  instances,  the 
wrong  verb  is  used;  correct  it,  therefore,  according 
to  the  explanation'  given  :  thus,  "  My  brother  lies 
ill  of  a  fever ;"  "  The  vessel  lies  in  Brooklyn 
Docks;'7  "  The  books  were  lying  on  the  floor;"  "He 
lay  on  a  sofa  three  weeks/'  "  After  I  had  lain 
down,  I  remembered  that  I  had  left  my  pistols 
lying  on  the  table." 

It  is  probable  that  this  error  has  originated  in 
the  circumstance  of  the  present  tense  of  the  verb 
"  to  lay  "  being  conjugated  precisely  like  the  im- 
perfect tense  of  the  verb  "  to  lie ;"  for  they  are 
alike  in  orthography  and  sound,  and  different  only 
in  meaning;  and  in  order  to  remedy  the  evil  which 
this  resemblance  seems  to  have  created,  1  have  con- 
jugated at  full-length  the  simple  tenses  of  the  two 
verbs,  hoping  the  exposition  may  be  found  useful ; 
for  it  is  an  error  which  must  be  corrected  by  all 
who  aspire  to  the  merit  of  speaking  their  own  lan- 
guage well. 

VERB  ACTIVE.  VERB  NEUTER. 

To  lay.  To  lie. 

Present  tense.  Present  tense.      4 

Thouliest        1  down' 

too  long, 

He  r-es  I  on  a  sola 

We  lie  f  __ 

I 


ERRORS,  INACCURACIES,  ETC.  91 


I  laid 


VERB  ACTIVE. 
To  lay. 

Imperfect  tense. 


uu,  .,    ,  money, 

Thoulaidest  carpetg> 


He  laid 
We  laid 


-  plans, 


I     any 

You  laid  |  ,/>,-„,; 

They  laid 


VERB  NEUTER 

To  lie. 
Imperfect  tense. 

i  1  down> 

ulayest  too  W, 

\ay  i  on  a  sofa, 


We  ay 

Y?ul*y 
They  lay 


Present  Participle,  Laying.  Present  Participle,  Lying. 

Perfect  Participle,  Laid.  Perfect  Participle,  Lain. 

In  such  sentences  as  these,  wherein  the  verb  is  used 
reflectively — "  If  I  lay  myself  down  on  the  grass  I 
shall  catch  cold ;"  "  He  laid  himself  down  on  the  green 
sward ;"  the  verb  "  to  lay  "  is  with  propriety  sub- 
stituted for  the  verb  "  to  lie ;"  because  the  addition 
of  the  emphatic  pronoun  myself,  or  himself,  consti- 
tuting an  objective  case,  and  coming  immediately 
after  the  verb  without  the  intervention  of  a  preposi- 
tion, renders  it  necessary  that  the  verb  employed 
should  be  active,  not  neuter,  because  "  active  verbs 
govern  the  objective  case."  But  this  is  the,  only 
construction  in  which  "  to  lay  "  instead  of  "  to  lie" 
can  be  sanctioned  by  the  rules  of  grammar. 

12.  The  same  confusion  often  arises  in  the  use 
of  the  verbs  sit  and  set,  rise  and  raise.  Sit  is  a 
neuter  verb,  set  an  active  one  ;  yet  how  often  do 
people  most  improperly  say,  "  I  have  set  with  him 
for  hours ;"  "  He  set  on  the  beach  till  the  sun  went 
down ;"  "  She  set  three  nights  by  the  patient's  bed- 
Side.  "  What  did  they  set — potatoes,  traps,  or 
what  V  for  as  an  objective  case  is  evidently  implied 
by  the  use  of  an  active  verb,  an  object  is  indispen- 
sable to  complete  the  sense.  No  tense  whatever  of 


92  FALSE    SYNTAX. 

the  verb  "  to  sit  "  is  rendered  "  set,"  which  has  but 
one  ivord  throughout  the  whole  verb,  except  the 
active  participle  "  setting  ;"  and  "  sit  "  has  but  two 
words  "  sit  "  and  "  sat,"  therefore  it  is  very  easy  to 
correct  this  error  by  the  help  of  a  little  attention. 

13.  Raise  is  the  same  kind  of  verb  as  set :  active- 
transitive,  requiring  an  objective  case  after  it ;  and 
it  contains  only  two  words,  raise  and  raised,  besides 
the  active  participle  "  raising"     Rise  is  a  neuter 
verb,  not  admitting  an  objective   case ;   it  contains 
two  words,  rise  and  rose,  besides  the  two  participles, 
rising  and  risen.     It  is  improper,  therefore,  to  say, 
"  He  rose  the  books  from  the  floor ;"  "  He  rises  the 
fruit  as  it  falls;"  "  After  she  had  risen  the  basket 
on  her  head,"  etc.     In  all  such  cases  use  the  other 
verb  raise.     It  occurs  to  me,  that  if  people  would 
take  the  trouble  to  reckon  how  many  different  words 
a  verb  contains,   they  would  be   in  less  danger  of 
mistaking  them  ;  "  lay"  contains  two  words,  "  lay" 
and  "  laid,"  besides  the  active  participle  "  laying  ;" 
"Lie"    has    also    two    words,    "lie"    and    "lay," 
besides  the  two   participles   "lying"  and  "lain;" 
and  from  this  second  word  "  lay"  arises  all  the  con- 
fusion I  have  had  to  lament  in  the  foregoing  pages. 

14.  To  the  scholar  I  would  remark,  the  prevalent 
impropriety  of  adopting  the  subjunctive  instead  of 
the  indicative  mood  in   sentences  where  doubt  or 
uncertainty  is  expressed,  although  the  former   can 
only  be  used  in  situations  in  which  "  contingency 
and  futurity"  are  combined.      Thus,  a  gentleman, 
giving  an  order  to  his  tailor,  may  say,  "  Make  me  a 
coat  of  a  certain  description,  if  it  fit  me  well  I  will 


ERRORS,  INACCURACIES,  ETC.  93 

give  you  another  order,"  because  the  "  fit  "  alluded 
to  is  a  thing  which  the  future  has  to  determine  ; 
but  when  the  coat  is  made  and  brought  home,  he 
cannot  say,  "  If  this  cloth  be  good  I  will  give  you 
another  order,"  for  the  quality  of  the  cloth  is  already 
determined  ;  the  future  will  not  alter  it ;  it  may  be 
good,  it  may  be  bad,  but  whatever  it  may  be  it 
already  is ;  therefore,  as  contingency  only  is  im- 
plied, without  futurity,  it  must  be  rendered  in  the 
indicative  mood,  "If  this  cloth  is  good,"  etc.  We 
may  with  propriety  say,  "  If  the  book  be  sent  in 
time,  I  shall  be  able  to  read  it  to-night,"  because 
the  sending  of  the  book  is  an  event  which  the 
future  must  produce ;  but  we  must  not  say,  "  If 
this  book  be  sent  for  me,  it  is  a  mistake,"  because 
here  the  act  alluded  to  is  already  performed — the 
book  is  come.  I  think  it  very  likely  that  people 
have  been  beguiled  into  this  error  by  the  prefix  of 
the  conjunction,  forgetting  that  conjunctions  may 
be  used  with  the  indicative  as  well  as  with  the  sub- 
junctive mood. 

15.  Some  people  use  the  imperfect  tense  of  the 
verb  "  to  go,"  instead  of  the  past  participle,  and 
say,  "  I  should  have  went"  instead  of  "  I  should 
have  gone."  This  is  not  a  very  common  error,  but 
it  is  a  very  great  one,  and  I  should  not  have  thought 
it  could  come  within  the  range  of  the  class  for 
which  this  book  is  written,  but  that  I  have  heard 
the  fault  committed  by  people  of  even  tolerable 
education;  one  might  as  well  say,  "  I  should  have 
was  at  the  theatre  last  night,"  instead  of  "  I  should 


94  FALSE    SYNTAX. 

have  been  at  the  theatre,"  etc.,  as   say,  "  I  should 
have  went"  instead  of  "  I  should  have  gone''' 

16.*0thers  there  are  who  invert  this  error, 
and  use  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  "to  do/' 
instead  of  a  tense  of  the  verb,  saying,  "I  done  " 
instead  of  "  I  did"  This  is  inadmissible.  "  I  did 
it,"  or  "I  have  done  it,"  is  a  phrase  correct  in  its 
formation,  its  application  being,  of  course,  depend- 
ent on  other  circumstances. 

17.  There   are  speakers  who  are   too  refined  to 
use  the  past  (or  perfect)  participle  of  the  verbs  "  to 
drink  "  "  to   run,"  "  to   begin,"  etc.,  and  substitute 
the  imperfect  tense,  as  in  the  verb  "to  go:"   thus, 
instead  of  saying,  "  I  have  drunk,"  "  he  has  run,-' 
"  they  have  begun,"  they  say,  "  I  have  drank"  "  he 
has    ran,"  "  they  have    began"    etc.      These    are 
minor  errors,  I  admit,  still,  nice  ears  detect  them. 

18.  I  trust  it  is  unnecessary  to  warn  any  of  my 
readers  against  adopting  the  flagrant  vulgarity  of 
saying  "  don't  ought,"  and  "  hadn't  ought,"  instead 
of  "  ought  not." 

19.  Many  people  have  an  odd  way  of    saying, 
"I  expect,"  when  they   only  mean   "  I   think,"  or 
"I  conclude;"  as,  "I   expect   my  brother   is  gone 
to  Richmond  to-day;"  "  I  expect  those  books  were 
sent  to  New  York  last  year."     This  is  wrong  :  ex- 
pect can  only  relate  to  future  time,  and  must  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  future   tense,  or  a  verb  in  the  infinitive 
mood  :  as,  "  I  expect  my  brother  will  go  to  Rich- 
mond to-day  ;"  "  I  expect  to  find  those  books  were 
sent  to  New  York  last  year."     Here  the  introduc- 


ERRORS,  INACCURACIES,  ETC.  95 

tion  of  a  future  tense,  or  of  a  verb  in  the  infinitive 
mood,  rectifies  the  grammar  without  altering  the 
sense  :  but  such  a  portion  of  the  sentence  must  not 
be  onutted  in  expression,  as  no  such  ellipsis  is 
allowable. 

20.  The  majority  of  speakers  use  the  imperfect 
tense  and  the  perfect    tense  together,  in  such  sen- 
tences as  the  following  :  "  I  intended  to  have  called 
on   him   last   night;"   "  I  meant  to  have  purchased 
one  yesterday  ;".  or  a  pluperfect  tense  and  a  perfect 
tense  together,  I  have   sometimes  heard,  as,  "  You 
should  have  written   to  have  told  her."     These  ex- 
pressions are  illogical,  because,  as  the  intention  to 
perform  an  act  must  be  2)rior  to  the  act  contemplated, 
the  act  itself  cannot  with  propriety  be  expressed 
by  a  tense   indicating  a  period  of   time  previous  to 
the  intention.     The  three  sentences  should  be   cor- 
rected thus,  placing   the   second  verb  in   the  infini- 
tive-mood, "  I  intended  to  call  on  him  last  night;" 
"  I  meant  to  purchase  one  yesterday  ;"  "  You  should 
have  written  to  tell  her." 

But  the  imperfect  tense  and  the  perfect  tense 
are  to  be  combined  in  such  sentences  as  the  follow- 
ing :  "  I  remarked,  that  they  appeared  to  have  un- 
denrone  great  fatigue  ;"  because  here  the  act  of  "  un- 

O  O  O  ' 

dergoing  fatigue  "  must  have  taken  place  previous 
to  the  period  in  which  you  ha\e  had  the  opportu- 
nity of  remarking  its  effect  on  their  appearance  ; 
the  sentence,  therefore,  is  both  grammatical  and 
logical. 

21.  Another  strange  perversion  of  grammatical 
propriety  is  to  be  heard  occasionally  in  the  adop- 


96  FALSE    SYNTAX. 

tion  of  the  present  tense  of  the  verb  "  to  have," 
most  probably  instead  of  the  past  participle,  but  in 
situations  in  which  the  participle  itself  would  be  a 
redundance;  such  as,  "If  I  had  have  knqwn  ;" 
"  If  he  had  Have  come  according  to  appointment  ;" 
"If  you  had  Have  sent  me  that  intelligence,"  etc. 
Of  what  utility  is  the  word  "  have,"  in  the  sentence 
at  all  ?  What  office  does  it  perform  ?  If  it  stands 
in  place  of  any  other  word,  that  oilier  word  would 
still  be  an  incumbrance ;  but  the  sentence  being  com- 
plete without  it,  it  becomes  an  illiterate  superfluity. 
"  If  I  had  Have  known  that  you  would  have  been 
there  before  me,  I  would  have  written  to  you  to 
Have  waited  till  I  had  Jiave  come."  What  a  con- 
struction from  the  lips  of  an  educated  person  !  and 
yet  we  do  sometimes  hear  this  slip-slop  uttered  by 
people  who  are  considered  to  "  speak  French  and 
Italian  well,"  and  who  enjoy  the  reputation  of  being 
41  accomplished !" 

Though  not  at  all  disposed  to  be  malicious,  I 
cannot  avoid  being  often  forcibly  reminded  of 
Byron's  description  of  a  Spanish  Blue  : — 

"  She  knew  the  Latin — that  is,  "  The  Lord's  Prayer ;" 
And  Greek — the  Alphabet — I'm  nearly  sure ; 

She  read  some  French  romances  here  and  there, 
Although  her  mode  of  speaking  was  not  pure  ; 

For  native  Spanish  shejmd  no  great  care, 
At  least  her  conversation  was  obscure," — 

If  our  own  language  is  so  mean  and  insignificant 
as  to  be  unworthy  a  little  attention,  why  do  we 
not  banish  it  from  good  society  altogether — speak 
French  and  German  in  common  conversation,  and 


ERRORS,  INACCURACIES,  ETC.  97 

leave  vulgar  English  to  the  ''canaille?"  We  con- 
fess ourselves,  as  a  nation,  under  great  obligations 
to  those  men  of  genius  and  erudition  who  have 
assisted  to  purify  and  extend  our  language,  and 
who  have  raised  it  gradually  to  its  present  standard 
of  elegance  and  refinement,  but  our  own  share  of 
the  obligations  will  be  small  if  we  will  not  avail 
ourselves  of  the  benefit  of  their  exertions.  And  is 
it  demanding  too  much  of  the  educated,  to  inquire 
that  they  should  speak  correctly  that  language 
which  the  accomplished  natives  of  other  countries 
take  infinite  pains  to  acquire  ?  Is  it  being  too  fas- 
tidious, u  too  particular,"  to  suggest  attention  to 
these  nice  distinctions  of  right  and  wrong,  of  purity 
and  corruption,  in  those  to  whom  we  have  a  right 
to  look  for  models  of  English  eloquence  ?  If  so  ; 
if  it  is  impossible  to  exercise  the  perfection  of  the 
scholar  without  the  affectation  of  the  pedant,  then 
aim  not  at  a  change  which  would  only  alter  your  con- 
dition without  improving  it — for  it  would  be  bet- 
ter to  commit  all  the  errors  which  this  little  book  de- 
nounces, than  stiffen  into  pedantry. 

22.  It  is  amusing  to  perceive  the  broad  line  of 
demarcation  which  exists  between  vulgar  bad  gram- 
mar, and  genteel  bad  grammar,  and  which  charac- 
terises the  violation  of  almost  every  rule  of  syntax. 
The  vulgar  speaker  uses  adjectives  instead  of  ad- 
verbs, and  says,  "  This  letter  is  written  shocking  ;" 
the  genteel  speaker  uses  adverbs  instead  of  adjec- 
tives, and  says,  "  This  writing  looks  shockingly." 
The  perpetrators  of  the  latter  offence  may  fancy 
they  can  shield  themselves  behind  the  grammatical 
9 


98  FALSE   SYNTAX. 

law  which  compels  the  employment  of  an  adverb, 
not  an  adjective,  to  qualify  a  verb  ; — and  behind 
the  first  rule  of  syntax,  which  says  "  a  verb  must 
agree  with  its  nominative  ;"' — but  which  is  the  nom- 
inative in  the  expression  alluded  to  ?  which  per- 
forms the  act  of  looking — the  writing  or  the  speaker? 
To  say  that  a  thing  looks  when  we  look  at  it,  is  an 
idiom  peculiar  to  our  language,  and  some  idioms 
are  not  reducible  to  rules  ;  they  are  conventional 
terms  which  pass  current,  like  bank-notes,  for  the 
sterling  they  represent,  but  must  not  be  submitted 
to  the  test  o/  grammatical  alchemy.  It  is  improper, 
therefore,  to  say  "  The  Queen  looks  beautifully  ;" 
4<  The  flowers  smell  sweetly  ;"  "  This  writing  looks 
shockingly  ;"  because  it  is  the  speaker  that  per- 
forms the  act  of  looking,  smelling,  etc.,  not  the 
noun  looked  at ;  and  though,  by  an  idiomatical 
construction  necessary  to  avoid  circumlocution,  the 
sentence  imputes  the  act  to  the  thing  beheld,  the 
qualifying  word  must  express  the  quality  of  the 
thing  spoken  of,  adjectively,  instead  of  qualifying 
the  act  of  the  nominative  understood,  adverbially. 
What  an  adjective  is  to  a  noun,  an  adverb  is  to  a 
verb ;  an  adjective  expresses  the  quality  of  a  thing, 
and  an  adverb  the  manner  of  an  action.  Consider 
what  it  is  you  wish  to  express,  the  quality  of  a 
thing,  or  the  manner  of  an  action,  and  use  an  ad- 
jective or  adverb  accordingly.  But  beware  that 
you  discriminate  justly,  for  though  you  cannot  say, 
"  The  Queen  looked  majestically  in  her  robes,"  be- 
cause here  the  act  of  looking  is  performed  by  the 
spectator,  who  looks  at  her  ;  you  can  and  must  say, 


ERRORS,  INACCURACIES,  ETC.  99 

"  The  Queen  looked  graciously  on  the  petitioner  ;'* 
"  The  Queen  looked  mercifully  on  his  prayer  ;"  be- 
cause here  the  act  of  looking  is  performed  by  the 
Queen.  You  cannot  say,  "These  flowers  smell 
sweetly,"  because  it  is  you  that  smell,  and  not  the 
flowers;  but  you  can  say,  "These  flowers  perfume 
the  air  delieiously,"  because  it  is  they  which  impart 
the  fragrance,  not  you.  You  cannot  say,  "  This 
dress  looks  badly,"  because  it  is  you  that  look,  not 
the  dress ;  but  you  can  say,  "  This  dresses  badly,"" 
because  it  is  the  dress  that  performs  the  act  of  fit- 
ting-, either  well  or  ill.  There  are  some  peculiar 
idioms  which  it  would  be  better  to  avoid  altogether, 
if  possible,  but  if  you  feel  compelled  to  use  themr 
take  them  as  they  are  ;  you  cannot  prune  and  re- 
fine them  by  the  rules  of  syntax,  and  to  attempt  to- 
do  so  shows  ignorance  as  well  as  affectation. 

23.  There  is   a  mistake  often  committed  in  the 
use  of  the  adverbs  of  place,  hence,-  thence,  whence. 
People  are  apt  to  say,  "He  will  go  from  thence  to- 
morrow, etc."     The  preposition  "  from  "  is  included 
in  these  adverbs,  therefore  it  becomes  tautology  in 
sense  when  prefixed  to  them. 

24.  "  Equally  as  well,"  is   a  very  common  ex- 
pression,  and    a  very    incorrect    one ;   the   adverb 
of  comparison  "  as  "  has  no  right  in  the  sentence. 
"  Equally  well,"  "  equally  high,"  "  equally  dear," 
should  be  the  construction ;    and  if  a  complement 
be  necessary  in  the  phrase,  it  should  be  preceded 
by    the    preposition    "with,"   as    "The  wall   was- 
equally  high  with  the  former  one ;"  "  The  goods  at 
Smith's  are   equally  dear  with  those   sold  at  the 


iGO  FALSE  SYNTAX. 

shop  next  door,"  etc.,  etc,     "  Equally  the  same,"  is 
tautology. 

25.  "Whether,"  sometim  es  an  adverb,  son?  etimes 
a   conjunction,   is   a  word   that   plainly  indicates  a 
choice  of  things  (of  course,  I  cannot  be  supposed 
to  mean  &  freedom  of  choice),  it  is  highly  improper, 
therefore,  to  place  it,  as  many  do,  at  the  head  of 
each  part  of  a  sentence,  as  "  I  have  not  yet  made 
up    my  mind  whether  I   shall    go    to   France,   or 
whether  I  shall  remain  in  America."     The  conjunc- 
tion should  not  be  repeated,  as  it  is  evident  the  al- 
ternative is  expressed  only  in  the  combination  of  the 
two  parts  of  the  sentence,  not  in  either  of  them 
taken    separately;    and    the    phrase   should    stand 
thus  :  "  I  have  not  yet  made  up  my  mind  whether 
I  shall  go  to  France,  or  remain  in  America." 

26.  There  is  an  awkwardness  prevalent  amongst 
all   classes  of  society  in   such  sentences  as  the  fol- 
lowing:    "  He  quitted   his   horse,   and   got   on  too. 
stagecoach;"  lf  He  jumped  on  to  the  floor ;"  "She 
laid  it  on  to  a  dish ;"  "  I  threw  it  on  to  the  fire." 
Why  use  two  prepositions  where  one  would  be  quite 
as  explicit,  and  far  more  elegant  ?     Nobody  in  the 
present  day,  would  think  of  saying,  "  He  came  up 
to  New  York  for  to  go  to  the  Exhibition,"  because 
the  preposition  "  for  "  would  be  an  awkward  super- 
fluity ;  so  is  "  to  "  in  the   examples   given,  in  each 
of  which   there   is   an  unwieldiness  of  construction 
which   reminds  one  of   the  process  of   glueing,  or 
fastening,   one  thing  "  on   to  "  another.     Expunge 
the  redundant  preposition,  and  be  assured,  gentle 
reader,  the  sentence  will  still  be  found  "  an  elegant 


ERRORS,    INACCURACIES,  ETC,  101 

sufficiency."  There  are  some  situations,  however,, 
in  which  the  two  prepositions  may  with  propriety 
be  employed,  though  they  are  never  indispensable, 
as  "  I  accompanied  Such-a-one  to  High  Bridge,  and 
then  walked  on  to  Harlem."  But  here  two  motions 
are  implied,  the  walking  onward,  and  the  reaching 
of  a  certain  point.  More  might  be  said  to  illustrate 
the  distinction,  but  we  consider  it  will  not  be: 
deemed  necessary. 

27.  There  seems  to  be  a  natural  tendency  to  deal 
in  a  redundance  of  prepositions:  many  people  talk 
of  "  continuing  on"     I   should  be  glad  to  be  in- 
formed in  what  other  direction  it  would  be  possible 
to  continue.  ? 

28.  It  is   most  illiterate  to  put  the  preposition  of 
after  the  adverb  off*  as  "  The  satin  measured  twelve 
yards  before  I  cut  this  piece  off  of  it ;"  "  The  fruit 
was  gathered  off  of  that  tree."     Many  of  my  read- 
ers will  consider   such  a  remark  quite   unnecessary 
in   this  volume ;    but  many  others,  who  ought  to 
know  better,  must  stand  self-condemned  on  reading  it. 

29.  There  is  a  false  taste   extant  for  the  preposi- 
tion "  on  "  instead  of   "  of"  in   songs,  poetry,  and 
many  other  situations  in  which  there  is  still  less  ex- 
cuse  for   borrowing  the    poetic   license;    such   as,. 
•*  Wilt  thou  think  on  me,  love  ?"     "  I  will  think  on 
thee,  love  V"  u  Then  think  on  the  friend  who  once- 
welcomed  it  too,"  etc.,  etc.,  etc.    But  this  is  an  error 
chiefly  to  be  met  with  among  poetasters,  and  melo- 
dramatic speakers. 

30.  Some  people  add  a  superfluous  preposition  at 
the  end  of  a  sentence — '*  More  than  you  think  for!* 


102  FALSE    SYNTAX. 

This,  however,  is  an  awkwardness  rarely  committed 
by  persons  of  decent  education. 

31.  Never  speak  of  a  thing  looking  well  or  ill 
"at"   candle-light;    &?/ candle-light  is   the  proper 
construction.     "  By  day  or   night,  or   any  kind  of 
light." 

32.  That    "  Prepositions    govern    the   objective 
case  "  is  a  golden  rule  in  grammar ;   and  if  it  were 
only  well  remembered,  it  would   effectually  correct 
that  mistake  of  substituting  the  nominative  for  the 
objective  pronoun,  which    has  been  complained  of 
in  the  preceding  pages.     In  using  a  relative  pro- 
noun  in  the  objective  case,   it  is  more  elegant  to 
put  the  preposition  before  than  after  it,  thus,  "  To 
whom  was  the  order  given?"    instead  of  "  Whom 
was  the  order  given  to?"     Indeed,  if  this  practice 
was  invariably  adopted,  it  would  obviate  the  possi- 
bility of  confounding  the  nominative  with  the  ob- 
jective case,  because  no  man  would  ever  find  him- 
self able  to  utter  such  a  sentence  as,  "To  who  was 
this  proposal  made  ?"  though  he  might  very  uncon- 
sciously say,  "  Who  was  this  proposal  made  to  ?" 
and  the  error  would  be  equally  flagrant  in  both  in- 
stances. 

33.  There  is  a  great  inaccuracy  connected  with 
the  use  of  the  distinctive  conjunctions  or  and  nort 
which  seem  to  be  either  not  clearly  understood,  or 
treated  with  undue  contempt  by  persons  who  speak 
in  the  following  manner :  "  Henry  or  John  are  to 
go  there  to-night ;"   "  His   son  or  his  nephew  have 
since   put   in  their  claim;"    "  Neither  one  nor  the 
other  have  the  least  chance  of  success."     The  con- 


ERRORS,  INACCURACIES,  ETC.  103 

junctions  disjunctive  "  or  "  and  "  nor  "  separate 
the  objects  in  sense,  as  the  conjunction-copulative 
unites  them  ;  and  as,  by  the  use  of  the  former,  the 
things  stand  forth  separately  and  singly  to  the  com- 
prehension, the  verb  or  pronoun  must  Jbe  rendered 
in  the  singular  number  also ;  as,  "  Henry  or  John 
is  to  go  there  to-night;"  "  His  son  or  his  nephew 
lias  since  put  in  his  claim,"  etc.  If  you  look  over 
the  sentence,  you  will  perceive  that  only  one.  is  to 
do  the  act,  therefore  only  one  can  be  the  nomina- 
tive to  the  verb. 

34.  Many  people   improperly  substitute  the  dis- 
junctive "but"  for    the  comparative  "than,"   as, 
"The  mind  no  sooner  entertains   any  proposition, 
but  it  presently  hastens  to  some  hypothesis  to  bot- 
tom it  on  ;" — Locke.     "  No  other  resource  but  this 
was   allowed   him;"    "My  behaviour,''   says    she, 
"  has,  I  fear,  been  the  death  of  a  man  who  had  no 
other  fault    but  that  of   loving  me  too  much." — - 
Spectator. 

35.  Sometimes  a  relative  pronoun  is  used  instead 
of  a  conjunction  in  such  sentences  as  the  following  : 
"  I  don't  know  but  what  I  shall  go  to  Philadelphia 
to-morrow  ;"  instead  of  "  I  don't  know  but  that,9 
etc. 

36.  Sometimes  the  disjunctive  "  but "  is  substi- 
tuted for  the  conjunction  that,  as  "  I  have  no  doubt 
but  he  will  be  here  to-night."     Sometimes  for  the 
conjunction  "  if,'9  as,  "  I  shouldn't  wonder  but  that 
was  the   case."     And  sometimes  two  conjunctions 
are  used  instead  of  one,  as  "If  that  I  have  offended 
him;"  "  After  that  he  had  seen  the  parties,"  etc. 


104  FALSE    SYNTAX. 

All  this  is  very  awkward  indeed,  and  ought  to  be 
avoided,  and  might  easily  be  so  by  a  little  attention. 
If  a  man  who  is  desirous  of  attaining  propriety  of 
speech,  would  sometimes  take  up  his  grammar  con 
amorc,  and  search  into  this  or  that  dubious  point 
which  negligence  and  bad  example  have  contributed 
to  obscure  for  him,  acquaint  himself  with  the 
mechanism  of  certain  rules,  and  unmake  and  re- 
make a  few  sentences  constructed  on  them,  he 
would  soon  acquire  sufficient  information  for  his 
own  guidance.  It  is  not  necessary  that  he  should 
make  an  Herculean  labour  of  it — should  begin  with 
the  first  page  of  Etymology,  and  go  plodding 
through  to  the  last  of  Prosody,  a  process  which 
seems  to  be  looked  on  as  so  inevitable  by  the  mass, 
that  they  therefore  eschew  Grammars  altogether; 
— but  dip  into  syntax,  my  friend,  take  up  the  rules 
indiscriminately,  if  that  be  lighter  labour  for  the 
mind,  and  if  you  had  ever  "  done  grammar-lessons" 
before,  you  will  soon  master  the  few  remaining  diffi- 
culties, will  acquire  a  purity  of  style  in  your  own 
writing  and  conversation,  and  add  your  mite  to- 
wards refining  the  language  of  your  fathers. 

37.  It  is  obsolete  now  to  use  the  article  an  be- 
fore words  beginning  with  long  u,  or  with  eu,  and 
it  has  become  more  elegant,  in  modern  style,  to 
say,  "  a  University,"  a  "  useful  article,"  "  a  Euro- 
pean," "a  euphonious  combii  ation  of  sentences," 
etc.,  etc.,  etc.     It  is  also  proper  to  say  "  such  a  one," 
not  "  such  an  one." 

38.  Some  people  pronounce  the  plural  of  hand- 
kerchief, scarf,  wharf,  dwarf,  handkcrchicvcsfscarvc&r 


ERRORS,  INACCURACIES,  ETC.  105 

•wharves,  dwarves.  This  is  an  error,  as  these  words, 
and  perhaps  a  few  others,  are  exceptions  to  the 
rule  laid  down,  that  nouns  ending  in  f  or  fe,  shall 
change  these  terminations  into  ves  to  form  the 
plural. 

39.  There  is  an  illiterate  mode  of  pronouncing 
the  adverb  too,  which  is  that  of  contracting  it  into 
the  sound  of  the  preposition  to,  thus : — "  I  think  I 
paid  to  much  for  this  gun ;"  "  This  line  is  to  long 
by  half."     The  adverb  too  should   be  pronounced 
like  the  numeral  adjective  two,  and  have  the  same 
full  distinct  sound  in  delivery,  as  "  I  think  I   paid 
two  much  for  this  gwn  ;"  "  This  line  is  two  long  by 
half." 

40.  One  does  not  expect  to  hear  such  words  as 
"  necessi'ated,"    "  preventative,"   etc.,  from  people 
who  profess  to  be  educated,  but  one  does  hear  them, 
nevertheless,  and  many  others  of  the  same  genus, 
of  which  the  following  list  is  a  specimen,  not  a  col- 
lection. 

"  Febuary  "  and  "Febbiwerry"  instead  of  Febru- 
ary. 9 

"  Seckaterry  "  instead  of  secretary. 

"  Government "         "          government. 

"  Eve'min "  "          evening. 

"  Sev'm  "  "          seven. 

"  Holladiz "  "          holidays. 

u  Chapped "  according  to  orthography,  instead 
of  chopped  according  to  polite  usage. 

And  we  have  even  heard  "  continental"  pro- 
nounced cdntinential,  though  upon  what  authority 
we  know  not  Besides  these,  a  multitude  of  others 


106  FALSE   SYNTAX. 

might  be  quoted,  which  we  consider  too  familiar  to 
particularize,  and  "  too  numerous  to  mention. " 

41.  There  is  an  old  jest  on  record  of  a  person 
hearing  another  pronounce  the  word  curiosity, 
"curosity,"  and  remarking  to  a  by-stander,  "That 
man  murders  the  English  language  ;"  "Nay, "replies 
the  person  addressed,  "  he  only  knocks  an  eye  (i) 
out."  And  I  am  invariably  reminded  of  this  old 
jest  whenever  I  hear  such  pronunciations  as  the 
following:  "  Lat'n"  for  latin,  and  "  sat'n"  for  satin  ; 
of  which  a  few  examples  will  be  given  on  a  subse- 
quent page,  not  with  the  wild  hope  of  comprising 
in  so  short  a  space  all  the  perversions  of  Prosody 
which  are  constantly  taking  place,  but  simply  with 
the  intention  of  reminding  careless  speakers  of 
some  general  principles  they  seem  to  have  forgot- 
ten, and  of  the  vast  accumulation  of  error  they 
may  engraft  upon  themselves  by  a  lazy  adherence 
to  the  custom  of  the  crowd.  Before,  however,  pro- 
ceeding to  the  words  in  question,  it  may  be  satis- 
factory to  our  readers  to  recall  to  their  memory  the 
observations  of  Lindley  Mumiy  on  this  subject. 
He  says,  "  There  is  scarcely  anything  which  more 
distinguishes  a  person  of  a  poor  education  from  a 
person  of  a  good  one,  than  the  pronunciation  of 
the  unaccented  vowels.  When  vowels  are  under  the 
accent,  the  best  speakers,  and  the  lowest  of  the 
people,  with  very  few  exceptions,  pronounce  them 
in  the  same  manner;  but  the  ^accented  vowels  in 
the  mouths  of  the  former,  have  a  distinct,  open,  and 
specific  sound ;  while  the  latter  often  totally  sink 
them,  or  change  them  into  some  other  sound/'  The 


ERRORS,  INACCURACIES,  ETC. 


101 


words  that  have  chiefly  struck  me  are  the  follow- 
ing, in  which  not  only  the  i  but  many  of  the  other 
vowels  are  submitted  to  the  mutilating  process,  or, 
as  I  have  heard  it  pronounced,  mutulating, — 

American  instead  of  American. 

Lat'n  "  Latin. 

Sat'n  "  Satin. 

Patt'n  "  Patten. 

Curt'n  "  Curtain. 

Cert'n  "  Certain. 

Bridle  "  Bridal. 

Idle  "'  Idol. 

Meddle  "  Medal. 

Moddle  "  Model. 

Mentle  "  Mental. 

Mortle  '•  Mortal. 

Fatle  "  Fatal. 

Gravle  "  Gravel. 

Travle  "  Travel. 

Sudd'n  "  Sudden. 

Infidle  "  Infidel. 

Scroop* -lous  "  Scrn-pu-\o>Vi$. 

And  a  long  train  of  et  ceteras,  of  which  the 
above  examples  do  not  furnish  a  tithe. 

Note. — That  to  sound  the  e  in  garden  and  often,  and  the  i  in 
evil  and  devil,  is  a  decided  error :  they  should  always  be  pro- 
nounced gard'n  and  ofCn ;  ev'l  and  dev'l. 

42.  It  is  affected,  and  contrary  to  authority, 
to  deprive  the  s  of  its  sharp  hissing  sound  in 
the  words  precise,  desolate,  design,  and  their  deriv- 
atives. 


108  ON    PUNCTUATIOX. 

43.  I  would  venture  to  ask,  with  all  humility, 
why  the  word  chariot  should  he  made  to  rhyme 
with  carrot  ?  If  this  mispronunciation,  were  con- 
fined to  the  lower  and  middle  classes  I  would,  with- 
out hesitation,  denounce  it  as  a  flagrant  illiteracy  ; 
hut  having  heard  it  occasionally  from  patrician  lips, 
I  naturally  approach  the  subject  with  a  degree  of 
reverence,  lest,  to  deform  and  vulgarize  the  lan- 
guage as  much  as  possible,  should  be  some  myste- 
rious aristocratic  privilege,  that  we,  in  common  life, 
are  unacquainted  with. 


N    PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation  treats  of  the  points  or  marks  inserted 
in  written  composition,  for  the  purpose  of  showing 
more  clearly  the  sense  intended  to  be  conveyed,  and 
the  pauses  required  in  reading. 

The  principal  points  or  marks  employed  in  punc- 
tuation are — the  comma  [,],  the  semicolon  [;],  the 
colonf:],  the  period  [.],  the  note  of  interrogation  [?], 
the  note  of  exclamation[!],  and  the  dash[ — ]. 

The  comma  requires  a  momentary  pause  :  the 
semicolon,  a  pause  somewhat  longer  than  the  com- 
ma ;  the  colon,  a  pause  somewhat  longer  than  the 
semicolon  ;  and  the  period,  a  full  stop.  The  note  of 
interrogation,  or  the  note  of  exclamation,  may  take 
the  place  of  any  one  of  these,  and  accordingly  re- 
quires a  pause  of  the  same  length  as  the  point  for 
which  it  is  substituted. 

The  duration  of  these  pauses  depend?  on  the  ch«- 


ON    PUNCTUATION.  109 

racter  of  the  composition  ;  the  grave  style  requiring 
much  longer  intervals  than  the  lively  or  impassioned. 
The  sense  of  a  passage  often  requires  a  pause  in 
reading,  where  usage  does  not  allow  the  insertion 
of  a  point  in  writing;  as  in  the  sentence,  "Our 
schemes  of  thought  in  childhood  |  are  lost  in  those 
of  youth."  On  the  other  hand,  points  are  some- 
times inserted  merely  to  indicate  the  syntactical 
construction,  without  requiring  a  suspension  of  the 
voice  in  reading;  as  in  the  phrase,  "No,  Sir." 


THE    COMMA. 

Rule  1. — When  a  relative  and  its  antecedent  are 
separated  from  each  other  by  one  or  more  words,  a 
comma  should  generally  be  inserted  before  the  rela- 
tive;  as,  "  Think  not  man  was  made  in  vain,  who 
has  such  an  eternijj^y  reserved  for  him." — Spectator. 
"  There  is  a  pleasure  in  poetic  pains, 
Which  only  poets  know." — Coivper. 
Exception  : — When,  however,  the  intervening 
word  is  an  adverb,  the  comma  is  more  commonly 
omitted  ;  as,  "  It  is  labor  only  which  gives  a  relish 
to  pleasure." 

Rule  2. — When  two  or  more  words  come  between 
the  adjective  and  its  noun,  a  comma  is  placed  after 
the  intervening  words  ;  as,  "To  dispel  these  errors, 
mid  to  give  a  scope  to  navigation,  equal  to  the  gran- 
deur of  his  designs,  Prince  Henry  called  in  the  aid 
of  science." — Irving. 

Rule  3. — When  the  subject  of  a  sentence  consists 
10 


110  ON    PUNCTUATION. 

of  several  nominatives,  or  of  a  single  nominative  fol- 
lowed by  an  adjunct  consisting  of  several  words,  a 
comma  should  be  inserted  before  the  following  verb. 
Examples : — "Many  of  the  evils,  which  occa- 
sion  our  complaints  of   the   world,    are   wholly 
imaginary." — "  The  effect  of  this  universal  diffu- 
sion of  gay  and  splendid  light,  was  to  render  the 
preponderating  deep  green  more  solemn." — Rey- 
nolds. 

"  The  golden  sun, 

'The  planets,  all  the  infinite  hosts  of  heaven, 
Are  shining  on  the  sad  abodes  of  death." 

Hule  4. — When  a  sentence  or  clause  is  used  as 
the  nominative  to  a  preceding  or  following  verb,  it 
should  be  separated  from  the  verb  by  a  comma ;  as, 
"How  clearly  America  remembered  the  parent 
island,  is  'told  by  -the  English  names  of  its  towns." 
— Sparks. 

Rule  5. — Two  successive  words,  in  the  same  con- 
struction, without  a  conjunction  expressed,  are  gen- 
erally separated  by  a  comma ;  as,  "An  aged,  vener- 
able man." 

"Has  Nature,  in  her  calm,  majestic  march, 

Faltered  with  age  at  last  ?" 

An  apparent  exception  to  this  rule  often  occurs 
in  the  case  of  two  successive  adjectives;  as  in  the 
expression,  "A  venerable  old  man."  But  the  two 
adjectives,  in  this  example,  are  not  in  the  same  con- 
struction, since  old  qualifies  man,  while  venerabl-e 
qualifies  the  phrase,  old  man. 

A  comma  may  also  be  inserted  before  a  conjunc- 


ON    PUNCTUATION  111 

tion  expressed,  if  either  of  the  words  connected  is 
followed  by  an  adjunct  consisting  of  several  words; 
as,  "  Intemperance  destroys  the  vigour  of  our  bodies, 
and  the  strength  of  our  minds." 

Rule  6. — Three  or  more  distinct,  successive  words 
in  the  same  construction,  with  or  without  a  conjunc- 
tion expressed,  should  be  separated  by  commas  ;  asy 
"  Beside  the  bed  where  parting  life  was  laid, 
And  sorrow,  guilt,  and  pain,  by  turns  dismayed, 
The  reverend  champion  stood." — Goldsmith 
"  An  elegant  sufficiency,  content, 
Retirement,  rural  quiet,  friendship,  books, 
Ease  and  alternate  labor,. useful  life, 
Progressive  virtue,  and  approving  Heaven." 

Thomson. 

"  How  poor,  how  rich,  how  abject,  how  august. 
How  complicate,  how  wonderful,  is  man  !" 

Young. 

The  same  apparent  exception  occurs  in  this  rule 
as  in  the  last.  In  the  expression,  "  A  light  bluish 
green  tint,"  bluish  modifies  green,  and  light  modifies 
the  phrase  bluish  green ;  while  the  three  wordst 
light  bluish  green,  taken  together,  qualify  tint. 

Rule  7. — Successive  pairs  of  words  should  be 
separated  from  each  other  by  commas ;  as,  "  The 
authority  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  of  7*cno  and  Epi- 
curus, still  reigned  in  the  schools." 

Rule  8. — When  the  different  members  of  a  com- 
pound sentence  contain  distinct  propositions,  they 
are  generally  separated  from  each  other  by  commas. 
Examples : — "  They  shrunk  from  no  dangers. 


112  ON    PUNCTUATION. 

and  they  feared  no  hardships."  "  And  thus  their 
physical  science  became  magic,  their  astronomy 
became  astrology,  the  study  of  the  composition  of 
bodies  became  alchemy,  mathematics  became  the 
contemplation  of  the  spiritual  relations  of  number 
and  figure,  and  philosophy  became  theosophy." — 
WJmoell. 

llule  9. — When  the  different  meipbers  of  a  sen- 
tence express  a  mutual  comparison,  contrast  or  op- 
position, they  should  generally  be  separated  from 
each  other  by  commas. 

Examples  : — "  The  more  I  reflected  upon  it, 
the  more  important  it  appeared." — Goldsmith. 
"  The  Quaker  revered  principles,  not  men  ;  truth, 
not  power."  "  As  the  hart  panteth  after  the  wa- 
ter-brooks, so  panteth  my  soul  after  Thee," — 
Psalm  xlii.  1. 

Rule  10. — To  prevent  ambiguity  in  cases  of 
Ellipsis,  a  comma  is  sometimes  inserted  in  the  place 
of  the  word  or  phrase  omitted. 

Example  : — As  a  companion  he  was  severe 
and  satirical ;  as  a  friend,  captious  and  dangerous; 
in  his  domestic  sphere,  harsh,  jealous,  and  ira- 
scible." 

Rule  11. — When  two  or  more  successive  clauses 
and  with  words  sustaining  a  common  relation  to 
some  words  in  a  following  clause,  a  comma  should 
generally  be  inserted  after  each. 

Examples: — "The  truest  mode  of  enlarging 
our  benevolence,  is,  not  to  quicken  our  sensibility 
towards  great  masses*  or  wide-spread  evils,  but  to 


ON    PUNCTUATION.  113 

approach,  comprehend,  sympathize  witli,  and  act 
upon  a  continually  increasing  number  of  indivi- 
duals."—  Ckanning.  "  Such  compulsion  is  not 
merely  incompatible  with,  but  impossible  in  &free* 
or  elective  government." 

When,  however,  the  word  in  the  following  clause 
is  not  accompanied  by  several  words,  the  comma 
before  it  is  often  omitted ;  as,  "  We  may,  and  often 
do  ejnploy  these  means." 

Rule  12. — 'When  several  words  intervene  between 
the  verb  of  a  principal  clause  and  the  commence- 
ment of  a  subordinate  clause,  the  jclauses  should  be 
separated  from  each  other  by  a  comma;  as,  "  Had 
we  stopped  here,  it  might  have  done  well  enough." 
— "  He  was  nineteen  years  of  age,  when  he  bade 
adieu  to  his  native  shores." 

flule  13. — When  the  connexion  of  a  sentence  is 
interrupted  by  one  or  more  words,  not  closely  re- 
lated in  construction  to  what  precedes,  a  comma 
should  generally  be  inserted  both  before  and  aftQr 
the  word  or  words  introduced ;  as, 

"  He,  like  the  world,  his  ready  visit  pays, 
Where  fortune  smiles." — Young. 

Rule  14. — The  independent  case,  and  the  mfini- 
tive  absolute,  with  their  adjuncts  should  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas. 

Examples : — "  To  foster  industry,  to  promote 

union,  to  cherish  religious  peace, — these  were  his 

honest  purposes." — "The  play  writers,  where  are 

they  ?  and  the  poets,  are  their  fires  extinguished  ?'* 

—H.  More. 

10* 


114  ft  ON    PUNCTUATION. 

"  Wept  o'er  his  wounds,  or,  tales  of  sorrow  done, 
Shouldered  his  crutch  and  showed  how  fields  were- 

won." — Goldsmith. 

t    "  Rejoice,  you  men  of  Angiers,  ring  your  hells." 

Shakspcre. 

Rule  15. — When  either  of  two  words  in  apposi- 
tion is  accompanied  by  an  adjunct,  the  latter  of 
them,  with  the  words  depending  upon  it,  should  he 
set  off  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  hy  commas  ; 
as,  "The  following  is  a  dialogue  between  Socrates, 
the  great  Athenian  philosopher,  and  one  Glaucon,  a 
private  individual." 

Rule  16. — When  a  word  or  phrase  is  repeated  for 
the  sake  of  emphasis,  a  comma  should  be  inserted 
both  before  and  after  it;  as,  "here,  and  here  only,, 
lies  the  peculiar  character  of  the  revolution." 

"  Where  are  the  flowers,  the  fair  young  flowers, 

that  lately  sprang  and  stood, 
In  brighter  light  and  softer  airs,  a  beauteous 

sisterhood1?" 

Note. — Whan  the  word  or  words  to  be  set  off  ac- 
cording to  the  three  preceding  rules  stand  at  the 
beginning  or  end  of  a  sentence,  one  of  the  comma* 
is,  of  course,  necessary. 


THE   SEMICOLON* 

Rule  1. — When  to  a  sentence  complete  in  con- 
struction, a  clause  is  added  containing  a  reason,  an 
explanation,  an  inference,  or  a  contrast,  it  should 


ON    PUNCTUATION  115 

generally  be  preceded  by  a  semicolon ;  as,  "  The 
past  seems  to  promise  it ;  but  the  fulfilment  depends 
on  the  future." — "  To  the  latter  it  is  a  double  ad- 
vantage; for  it  diminishes  their  pain  here,  and  re- 
wards them  with  heavenly  bliss  hereafter." — Gold- 
smith. 

Rule  2. — When  several  successive  clauses  have  a 
common  connexion  with  a  preceding  or  following 
clause,  a  semicolon  is  generally  inserted  after 
each. 

Examples  : — "  Children  as  they  gamboled  on 
the  beach ;  reapers,  as  they  gathered  the  harv- 
vest ;  mowers,  as  they  rested  from  using  the 
scythe  ;  mothers,  as  they  busied  themselves  about 
the  household; — were  victims  to  an  enemy,  who 
disappeared  the  moment  a  blow  was  struck,  and 
who  was  ever  present,  where  a  garrison  or  a 
family  ceased  its  vigilance." — "  Reason  as  we 
may,  it  is  impossible  not  to  read,  in  such  a  fate, 
much,  that  we  know  not  how  to  interpret ;  much 
of  provocation  to  cruel  deeds  and  deep  resent- 
ment ;  much  of  apology  for  wrong  and  perfidy ; 
much  of  doubt  and  misgiving  as  to  the  past ; 
much  of  painful  recollections  ;  much  of  dark  fore- 
boding." 

Rule  3  —When  several  particulars  are  enume- 
rated in  a  sentence,  some  of  which  are  expressed  in 
several  words,  they  are  often  separated  from  each 
other  by  semicolons ;  as,  "  The  Aragonese  cortes 
was  composed  of  four  branches  or  arms  ;  the  ricos 
hombres,  or  great  barons ;  tha  lesser  nobles,  com- 


116  ON    PUNCTUATION. 

preh ending  the  knights;   the  clergy;  and  the  com- 
mons."— Robertson. 

Rule  4. — Two  or  more  successive  short  sentences 
having  no  common  dependence,  are  often  separated 
b  v  semicolons  instead  of  periods. 

Example  : — "  As  we  have  already  noticed,  its 
bruised  leaves  afforded  a  paste,  from  which  paper 
was  manufactured  ;  its  juice  was  formed  into  an 
intoxicating  beverage,  pulque,  of  which  the  na- 
tives, to  this  day,  are  excessively  fond ;  its  leaves 
supplied  an  impenetrable  thatch  for  the  more 
humble  dwellings;  thread,  of  which  coarse  stuffs 
were  made,  and  strong  cords,  were  drawn  from  its 
tough  and  twisted  fibres;  pins  and  needles  were 
made  of  the  thorns  at  the  extremity  of  its  leaves; 
and  the  root,  when  properly  cooked,  was  con- 
verted into  a  palatable  and  nutritious  food." — 
Prescott. 

THE    COLON. 

The  colon  is  much  less  used  now  than  formerly  : 
its  place  being  supplied  by  the  period,  the  semico- 
lon, or  the  dash.  At  present,  our  best  writers  sel- 
dom use  this  point,  except  in  the  following  cases : — 
Ilule  1. — When  a  quotation  or  enumeration  is 
introduced  by  such  expressions  as  in  these  words, 
the  following,  as  follows,  either  expressed  or  implied, 
the  quotation  or  enumeration  may  be  preceded  by 
a  colon. 

Examples  : — "  The  following  items  of  the  trib- 
ute furnished  by  different  cities,  will  give  a  more 


ON    PUNCTUATION.  117 

precise  idea  of  its  nature  :  20  chests  of  tea;  40 

pieces,"  &c. — "  Mr.  Tierney  rose  and  said  : — *  Mr. 

Speaker,  the  honoiir,' "  &c. 

"  All  were  attentive  to  the  godlike  man, 
When  from  his  lofty  couch  he  thus  began : 
1  Great  Queen,'  "  &c. — Drydcn. 

In  the  case  of  enumeration,  a  semicolon  is  fre- 
quently employed  instead  of  a  colon.  * 

Rule  2. — It  is  customary  in  title  pages  to  insert  a 
colon  between  the  name  of  the  place,  at  which  the 
book  is  published,  and  the  name  of  the  publisher ; 
as,  "  London  :  John  Murray,  Albemarle  Street." — 
"  Edinburgh  :  Oliver  and  Boyd,  Tweeddale  Court." 

Note. — Every  verse  of  the  Psalms  and  Litany  in 
the  book  of  Common  Prayer  is  divided  by  a  colon  ; 
as,  (<  My  tongue  is  the  pen :  of  a  ready  writer." — 
This  point  is  inserted  for  the  use  of  choirs,  where 
such  parts  of  the  service  are  chanted;  and  is  merely 
used  to  divide  the  verse  for  that  purpose.  No 
attention  should  be  paid  to  this  point  in  reading  the 
Psalms,  unless  when  it  happens  to  coincide  [which 
it  sometimes  does]  with  the  rules  of  punctuation. 

THQ    PERIOD. 

The  period  is  placed  at  the  end  of  a  complete 
sentence. 

A  period  is  sometimes  inserted  between  two  com- 
plete sentences,  which  are  connected  by  a  conjunc- 
tion :  as,  "  By  degrees  the  confidence  of  the  natives 
s^as  exhausted ;  they  had  welcomed  powerful  guests, 


118  ON    PUNCTUATION. 

who  had  promised  to  become  their  benefactors,  and 
who  now  robbed  their  humble  granaries.  But  the 
worst  evil  in  the  new  settlement  was  the  character 
of  the  emigrants. 

The  period  should  be  used  after  all  abbreviation^, 
as,  "  Bucks.,"  "  M.D.,"  "  Aug.,"  "  Esq.,"  "  Mrs.," 
"  Mr."  Such  expressions  as  4th,  10th,  4's,  9's,  4to, 
8vo,JL2mo,  do  not  require  the  period  after  them, 
since  they  are  not  strictly  abbreviations,  the  figures 
supplying  the  place  of  the  first  letters  of  the  words. 

THE    DASH. 

The  dash  is  used,  where  a  sentence  is  left  un- 
finished ;  where  there  is  a  sudden  turn  or  an  abrupt 
transition  ;  and  where  a  significant  pause  is  required. 

Examples  : — "  Let  the  government  do  this— 
the  people  will  do  the  rest." — Macaulay. 

"Ah,  that  maternal  smile  !  it  answers — Yes!" 

Cowper. 
"  He  suffer'd, — but  his  pangs  are  o'er ; 

Enjoyed, — but  his  delights  are  fled; 

Had  friends, — his  friends  are  now  no  more  ; 

And  foes, — his  foes  are  dead.'' — Montgomery. 

Modern  writers  often  employ  dashes  in  place  of 
the  parenthesis. 

THE    NOTE    OF   INTERROGATION. 

The  note  of  interrogation  is  placed  at  the  end  of 
a  sentence,  in  which  a  direct  question  is  asked;  as, 
"What  is  to  be  done?" 


ON    PUNCTUATION.  119 

THE    NOTE    OF    EXCLAMATION. 

The  note  of  exclamation  is  used  after  expressions 
of  sudden  emotion  or  passion,  and  after  solemn  in- 
vocations and  addresses;  as, 

"  Liberty  !  Freedom !  Tyranny  is  dead  : 
Run  hence,  proclaim,  cry  it  about  the  streets !  " 

Shakspere. 

"  Night,  sable  goddess  !  from  her  ebon  throne, 
In  rayless  majesty  now  stretches  forth 
Her  leaden  sceptre  o'er  a  slumbering  world. 
Silence  how  dead !  and  darkness  how  profound!" 

Young. 
"  Hail,  holy  light !  offspring  of  heaven  first  born!" 

Milton. 

When  the  interjection  Oh  is  used,  the  point  is 
generally  placed  immediately  after  it ;  but  when  O 
is  employed,  the  point  is  placed  after  one  or  more 
intervening  words,  as, 

"  Oh !  my  offence  is  rank,  it  smells  to  heaven/* 

Shakspere. 

"  But  thou,  0  Hope  !  with  eyes  so  fair, — 
What  was  thy  delighted  measure?" — Collins. 
The  following   characters  are  also  tmployed  in 
Composition : 

The  parenthesis   (  )   generally  includes  a  word, 
phrase,  or  remark,  which  is  merely  incidental  or 
explanatory,  and  which  might  be  omitted  without 
injury  to  the  grammatical  construction ;  as, 
"  The  tuneful  Nine  (so  sacred  legends  tell,) 
First  waked  their  heavenly  lyre  these  scenes  to 
tell."— Campbell. 


120  ON    PUNCTUATION. 

"Know  then  tins  truth,  (enough  for  man  to  know,) 

Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below." — Pope. 

The  parenthesis  is  now  employed  less  frequently 
than  formerly  ;  commas  or  dashes  being  used  to 
supply  its  place;  as,  "  The  colonists — such  is  human 
nature — desired  to  burn  the  town  in  which  they  had 
been  so  wretched." — Robertson. 

The  apostrophe  (')  is  used  to  denote  the  omission 
of  one  or  more  letters;  as,  o'er,  tlw\  It  is  likewise 
the  sign  of  the  possessive  case,  being  used  instead 
of  a  letter,  which  was  formerly  inserted  in  its  place; 
as,  marts  for  manes,  or,  manis. 

Marks  of  quotation  ("  ")  are  used  to  indicate  that 
the  exact  words  of  another  are  introduced  ;  as,  "  In 
my  first  parliament,"  said  James,  "I  was  a  novice." 

When  a  quotation  is  introduced  within  a  quota- 
tion, it  is  usually  distinguished  by  single  inverted 
commas;  as,  "  I  was  not  only  a  ship-boy  on  the 
'  high  and  giddy  mast/  but  also  in  the  cabin,  where 
every  menial  office  fell  to  my  lot."  If  both  quota- 
tions commence  or  terminate  together,  this  com- 
mencement or  termination  is  indicated  by  the  use  of 
three  commas ;  as,  "  In  the  course  of  this  polite  at- 
tention, he  pointed  in  a  certain  direction,  and  ex- 
claimed, *  That  is  Mr.  Bradley,  of  York,  a  man, 
whose  benevolence  is  proverbial.'  " 

When  a  point  is  inserted  immediately  after  a  quo- 
tation, it  should  be  placed  within  the  quotation 
marks. 

A  marJc  of  accent  (')  is  sometimes  placed  over  a 
syllable  to  denote  that  it  requires  particular  stress 
in  pronunciation. 


F'GUHES    OF    ,'PEECH.  121 

A  diaeresis  (  •• )  is  sometimes  placed  over  the  lat- 
ter of  two  successive  vowels  to  show  that  they  do 
not  form  a  dipthong;  as,  cooperate,  aerial. 

The  cedilla  ( J  is  a  mark,  which  is  sometimes 
placed  under  the  letter  c  to  show  that  it  has  the 
sound  of,?;  as  in  "facade." 

The  paragraph  (H)  is  used  in  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments  to  denote  the  beginning  of  a  new  subject. 
In  other  books,  paragraphs  are  distinguished  by 
commencing  a  new  line  further  from  the  margin 
than  the  beginning  of  the  other  lines.  This  is 
called  indenting. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 

A  figure  of  speech  is  a  departure  from  the  ordi- 
nary form  of  words,  from  their  regular  construction^ 
or  from  their  literal  signification. 

Departures  from  the  usual  form  of  words  are 
called  figures  of  Etymology. 

Departures  from  the  regular  construction  of  words 
are,  called  figures  of  Syntax. 

Departures  from  the  literal  signification  of  words 
are  called  figures  of  Rhetoric. 

Figures  of  Etymology. 

The  figures  of  Etymology  are  Aphacrcsis,  Syn- 
cope, Apocope,  Prosthesis,  Paragoge,  Synaeresis, 
Diaeresis,  and  Tmesis. 

1.  Aphaeresis  is  the  taking  of  a  letter  or  syllable 
from  the  beginning  of  a  word/  as,  'neath  for  be- 
neath ;  'gainst  for  against. 


122  FIGURES    OF    SPEECH. 

"But  his  courage  'gan  fail, 
For  no  arts  could  avail." 

2.  Syncope,  is   the  elision  of  one  or  more  letters 
from  the  middle  of  a  word  ;  as,  ling  ring  for  linger- 
ing ;  lov'd  for  loved. 

3.  Apocope  is  the  elision  of  one  or  more  letters, 
from  the  end  of  a  word ;  as,  thro1  for  through  ;  th' 
for  the. 

4.  Prosthesis  is  the  addition  of  one  or  more  letters 
to  the  beginning  of  a  word;    as,  beloved  for  loved ; 
encliain  for  chain  ;  adown  for  down. 

5.  Paragoge  is  the  addition  of  one  or  more  letters 
to  the  end  of  a  word  ;  as,  awaken  for  awake  ;  boun- 
den  for  bound ;  deary  for  dear. 

6.  Synaeresis  is  the  contraction  of  two  syllables 
into  one  ;   as,  s~2st  for  s"-est ;  alienate  for  a-li-in-ate. 

N.B.  Alienate  in  three  syllables,  as  if  written 
ale-yen-ate. 

7.  Diaeresis   is    the    separation    of  two    vowels 
standing  together,  so  as  to  connect  them,  with  differ- 
ent syllables  ;  as,  cooperate,  atrial. 

7.  Tmesis  is  the  separation  of  a  compound  word 
into  two  parts,  by  introducing  another  word  be- 
tween them  ;  as,  "  Thy  thoughts,  which  are  to  us 
ward''  for  "Thy  thoughts,  which  are  toward  us;" 
— "Hoiv  high  soever'''  for  "Howsoever  high." 

Figures  of  Syntax. 

The  principal  figures  of  Syntax  are  Ellipsis, 
Pleonasm,  Enallage,  and  Hyplrbaton. 

1.  Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  one  or  more  words, 
which  are  necessary  to  complete  the  grammatical 


FIGURES    OF    SPEECH.  123 

construction.     The  following  examples  will   serve 
to  illustrate  this  figure  : — 

1.  Nouns;  as,  "  St.  Peter's"  [church]; — "  The 
twelve  "  [apostles]. 

2.  Adjectives ;   as,   "  Every  day   and    [every] 
hour;  " — "  A  gentleman  and  [a]  lady." 

3.  Pronouns;  as,  "  I  am  monarch  of  all  [which] 
I  survey  ;" — "  He  left  in  the  morning,  and  [he] 
returned  the  same  day." 

4.  Verbs ;  as,  "  To  whom  the  angel "  [spoke]  ; 
— [Let]  "  No  man  eat  fruit  of  thee." 

5.  Adverbs;  as,  "  He  spoke  [wiselj]  and  acted 
wisely." 

6.  Prepositions  ;  as,  "  He  was  banished  [from] 
England  ;" — "  He  lived  like  [to]  a  prince." 

7.  Conjunctions ;    as,   "  I   came,   [and]   I  saw, 
[and]  I  conquered. 

8.  Phrases  and  entire  clauses  ;  as,  "  I  love  you 
for  nothing  more  than  [I  love  you]  for  the  just 
esteem  you  have  for  all  the  sons  of  Adam." — 
Swift. 

2.  Pleonasm  is  the  use  of  more  words  to  express 
ideas  than  are  necessary  ;    as,  "  I  know  thee  who 
tkou  art." — N.  Test.     "  What  we  have  seen  with 
our  eyes,  and  heard  with  our  ears'' 

The  repetition  of  a  conjunction  is  termed  Poly- 
syndeton ;  as,  "  We  have  ships  and  men  and  money 
and  stores." 

3.  Enallage  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech  for 
another;*  as, 

*  Deviations  of  this  kind  are,  in  general,  to  be  considered 
aolecisrns ;  otherwise,  the  rules  of  grammar  would  be  of  no 


124  FIGURES   OF   SPEECH. 

" Slow  rises  merit,  when  by  poverty  depressed." 
"Sure  some  disaster  has  befell." — Gay. 

4.  Hyperbaton  is  the  transposition  of  words ;  as, 
"All  price  beyond"  for  "Beyond  all  price."  "  He 
wanders  earth  around  "  for  "  He  wanders  around 
the  earth." 

Figures  of  Rhetoric. 

The  principal  figures  of  Rhetoric  are  Simile, 
Metaphor,  Allegory,  Antithesis,  Hyperbole,  Irony, 
Metonymy,  Synecdoche,  Pcrsonrficdticn,  Apostrophe, 
Interrogation,  Exclam&tion,  Vision,  and  Climax. 

1.  A  Simile  is  a  direct  and  formal  comparison  ; 
as,  "He  shall  be  like  a  tree  planted  by  the  rivers  of 
water." 

"As,  down  in  the  sunless  retreats  of  the  ocean, 
Sweet  flowrets  are  springing  no  mortal  can  see ; 
So,  deep  in  my  bosom,  the  prayer  of  devotion, 
Unheard  by  the  world,  rises  silent  to  thee." 

Moore. 

2.  A  Metaphor  is  an  implied  comparison ;  as, 
"Wild  fancies  in  his  moody  brain 

Gambol1  d  unbridled  and  unbound." — Hogg. 

3.  An  Allegory  is  a  continued  metaphor.     In  the 
following   beautiful   example,   found  in    the    80th 
Psalm,  the  people  of  Israel  are  represented  under 
the  symbol  of  a  vine  : — 

use  or  authority.  There  are,  however,  some  changes  of  this 
kind,  which  the  grammarian  must  not  condemn,  though 
they  do  not  agree  with  the  ordinary  principles  of  construc- 
tion. 


FIGURES    OF    SPEECH.  125 

"  Thou  hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt :  thou 
hast  cast  out  the  heathen,  and  planted  it.  Thou  pre- 
paredst  room  before  it,  and  didst  cause  it  to  take 
deep  root,  and  it  filled  the  land.  The  hills  were 
covered  with  the  shadow  of  it,  and  the  boughs  there- 
of were  like  the  goodly  cedars.  She  sent  out  her 
boughs  unto  the  sea,  and  her  branches  unto  the 
river.  Why  hast  thou  then  broken  down  her 
hedges,  so  that  all  they,  which  pass  by  the  way, 
do  pluck  her  ?  The  boar  out  of  the  wood  doth  waste 
it,  and  the  wild  beast  of  the  field  doth  devour  it." 

4.  An  Antithesis  is  an  expression  denoting  oppo- 
sition or  contrast ;  as, 

"  Contrasted  faults  through  all  their  manners  reign; 
Though  poor,  luxurious;  though  submissive,  vain; 
Though  grave,  yet  trifling;  zealous,  yet  untrue; 
And  e'en  in  penance,  planning  sins  anew." 

GoldsmitJi. 

"  The  wicked  flee  when  no  man  pursueth ;  but 
the  righteous  are  bold  as  a  lion." 

5.  An  Hyperbole  is  an  exaggeration  in  the  use  of 
language,  representing  objects  as  greater  or  less, 
better  or  worse,  than  they  really  are.   Thus,  David 
speaking  of  Saul  and  Jonathan,  says,  <l  They  were 
swifter  than  eagles;  they  were  stronger  than  lions." 

"  The  sky  shrunk  upward  with  unusual  dread, 
And  trembling  Tiber  div'd  beneath  his  bed.1' 

Dryden. 

6.  Irony  is  a  mode  of  speech  expressing  a  sense 
contrary  to  that,  which  the  speaker  or -writer  intends 

11* 


126  FIGURES    OF    SPEECH. 

to  convey.  The  Prophet  Elijah  employed  this 
figure,  when  he  said  to  the  priests  of  Baal,  "Cry 
aloud,  for  he  is  a  God ;  either  he  is  talking,  or  he 
is  pursuing,  or  he  is  in  a  journey,  or  peradventure 
he  sleepeth  and  must  be  awaked." 

7.  Metonymy  is  a  figure  by  which  one  thing  is 
put  for  another;  as,  "I  have  been  reading  Milton;" 
that  is,  Ins  poems  or  works. — "Gray  hairs  [old  age] 
should  be  respected." — "  The  sceptre  [kingly  power} 
shall  not  depart  from  Judah." 

8.  Synecdoche  is  a  figure,  by  which  the  whole  is 
put  for  a  part,  or  a  part  for  the  whole  ;    as,  "Man 
returneth  to  dust ;"  that  is,  his  body. — "  This  roof 
[house]  shall  be  his  protection." 

9.  Personification,  or  Prosopopeia,  is  a  figure,  by 
which  we  attribute  life  and  action  to  inanimate  ob- 
jects ;    or  ascribe  to  irrational  animals  and  objects 
without  life  the  actions  and  qualities  of '  rational 
beings;  as, 

"  See,  Winter  comes  to  rule  the  varied  year, 
Sullen  and  sad,  with  all  his  rising  train." 

Thomson. 

"  Vice  is  a  monster  of  such  frightful  mien, 
That,  to  be  hated,  needs  but  to  be  seen : 
But — seen  too  oft,  familiar  with  her  face, 
We  first  endure — then  pity — then  embrace/' 

Pope. 

10.  Apostrophe  is  a  figure,  by  which  a  speaker 
or  writer  turns  from  the  party,  to  which  his  discourse 
is  mainly  directed,  and  addresses  himself  to  some 
person  or  thing,  present  or  absent ;   as,  "  Death  is 


FIGURES    OF    SPEECH.  127 

swallowed  up  in  victory.  O  Death!  ivhere  is  thy 
sting  ?  O  Grave  !  where  is  thy  victory  ?  " — 1  Cor. 
xv.  54,  55. 

"  0  gentle  sleep, 

Nature's  soft  nurse,  how  have  I  frighted  thee, 
That  thou  no  more  wilt  weigh  my  eyelids  down, 
And  steep  my  senses  in  forgetfulness  1 " 

In  modern  usage,  the  term  Apostrophe  is  applied 
to  any  address  made  to  an  inanimate  object,  an  irra- 
tional animal,  or  an  absent  person  ;  as, 

"  Hail,  holy  Light,  offspring  of  Heaven,  first-born  I" 

Milton. 

"  Sail  on,  thou  lone,  imperial  bird, 
Of  quenchless  eye,  and  tireless  wing." 

Mellen. 
"Alas  !  my  noble  boy !  that  thou  shouldst  die ! 

Thou,  who  wert  made  so  beautifully  fair ! 
That  death  should  settle  in  thy  glorious  eye, 

And  leave  his  stillness  in  this  clustering  hair! 
How  could  he  mark  thee  for  the  silent  tomb ! 
My  proud  boy,  Absalom  !  " —  Willis.  ' 

11.  Interrogation  is  a  figure,  by  which  a  question 
is  asked  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  an  assertion 
more  strongly  ;  as,  "  Do  we  mean  to  submit  to  this 
measure  I     Do  we  mean  to  submit  and  consent  that 
we  ourselves,  our  country  and  its  rights,  shall  be 
trampled  on  ?     I  know  we  do  not  mean  to  submit. 
We  never  will  submit." — Webster. 

12.  Exclamation  is  a  figure  employed  to  express 
some  strong  emotion;  as, 


128  FIGURES    OF    SPEECH. 

'*  O  wretched  state  !    O  bosom,  black  as  death!** 

Skaksperc. 

"Ah !  how  unjust  to  nature  and  himself, 
Is  thoughtless,  thankless,  inconsistent  man!" 

Young. 

"  0  the  depth  of  the  riches  fyoth  of  the  wisdom 
and  the  knowledge  of  GOD  !  Plow  unsearchable 
aie  his  judgments,  and  his  ways  past  finding  out !" 

13.  Vision ,  or  Imagery,  is  a  figure,  by  which  past 
or  future  events  are  represented  as  passing  before 
our  eyes;  as, 

"  I  see  the  dagger-crest  of  Mar  ! 
I  see  the  Moray's  silver  star 
Wave  o'er  the  cloud  of  Saxon  war, 
That  up  the  lake  comes  winding  far  ! " — Scott. 

14.  Climax  is  a  figure,  in  which  the  ideas  rise  or 
sink  in  regular  gradation  ;  as,  '*  Giving  all  diligence, 
add  to  your  faith,  virtue  ;  and  to  virtue,  knowledge  ; 
and  to  knowledge,  temperance ;  and  to  temperance, 
patience ;    and  to  patience,  godliness  ;  and  to  godli- 
ness, brotherly  kindness;  and  to  brotherly  kindness, 
charity."—  2  Pet.  i.  5 — 7.     "  What  a  piece  of  work 
is  man !  how  noble  in  reason !  how  infinite  in  facul- 
ties! in  form  and  moving,  how  express  and  admira- 
ble !  in  action,  how  like  an  angel  !  in  apprehension, 
how  like  a  god  !  " — Shakspere.     "  What   is   every 
year  of  a  wise  man's  Kfe  but  a  criticism  on  the  past ! 
Those,  whose  life  is  the  shortest,  live  long  enough 
to  laugh  at  one  half  of  it :   the  boy"  despises  the  in- 
fant, the   man  the   boy,   the  sage  both,   and  the 
Christian  all." 


129 


EXPLANATION   OF    LATIN  WORDS    AND   PHRASES 
OF  FREQUENT  OCCURRENCE. 

Ab  initio :  from  the  beginning. 

Ad  captandum  vulgus  :  to  catcli  the  rabble. 

Ad  infinitum  :  to  infinity,  without  end. 

Ad  libitum  :  at  pleasure,. 

Ad  referendum  :  for  further  consideration. 

Ad  valorem  :  in  proportion  to  the  value. 

jEquo  animo  :  with  an  unruffled  mind. 

A  fortiori :  with  stronger  reason. 

Alias  :  otherwise  ;  as,  "  Jones  alias  Brown." 

Alibi :  elsewhere. 

9 

Alma  mater  :  a  benign  mother  ;  applied  generally 
to  the  University. 

A  mensa  et  tlioro  :  divorced  from  bed  and  board. 

Amor  patriae  :  the  love  of  our  country. 

Anglice :  In  English, 

Anno  Domini:  [A.D.]  in  the  year  of  our  Lord. 

Anno  Mundi ;  [A.M  ]  in  the  year  of  the  world. 

Annus  Mirabilis  :  the  year  of  wonders. — A  Poem  of 
Dryden's,  so  called  in  commemoration  of  the 
great  fire  of  London. 

A  posteriori :  from  the  effect  to  the  cause. 

A  priori :  from  the  cause  to  the  effect. 

Arcanum :  a  secret. 

Arcana  imperii :  state  secrets. 

Argumentum  ad  hominem  :  an  appeal  to  the  pro- 
fessed principles  or  practices  of  the  adversary. 


130         EXPLANATION    OF    LATL\7    WORDS,  ETC. 

Argumentum  ad  judicium  :  an  appeal  to  the  common 
sense  of  mankind. 

Argumentum  ad  fidem  :  an  appeal  to  our  faith. 

Argumentum  ad  populum  :  an  appeal  to  the  people. 

Argumentum  ad  passiones :  an  appeal  to  the  passions. 

Audi  alteram  partem  :  hear  the  other  party. 

Bona  fide  :  in  good  faith  :  in  reality. 

Contra  :  against. 

Cacoethes  scribendi,  loquendi :  an  itch  for  writing, 
for  talking. 

Capias  :  a  writ  to  authorize  the  seizure  of  the  de- 
fendant's person. 

Caput  mortuum  :  the  worthless  remains. 

Certiorari :  to  be.  made  more  certain. 

Ceteris  paribus  :  other  circumstances  being  equal. 

Commune  bonum  :  a  common  good. 

Compos  mentis :  in  one's  senses :  a  man  of  sane  mind. 

Contra  bonos  mores  :  against  good  morals  or  man- 
ners. 

Cui  bono  1  Cui  malo  ?  to  what  good — to  what  evil, 
will  it  tend  ? 

Cum  privilegio  :  with  privilege,  with  peculiar  priv- 
ilege. 

Currente  Calamo  :  witli  a  running  pen  :  with  great 
rapidity. 

Custos  rotulorum  :  the  keeper  of  the  rolls  and  records. 

Data  :  things  given  or  granted. 

De  facto  :  in  fact,  in  reality. 

De  jure  :  in  right,  in  law. 

Dei  gratia  :  by  the  grace  or  favor  cf  GOD. 

De  mortuis  nil  nisi  bonum  :  let  nothing  be  said  of  the 
dead  but  what  is  favorable. 


EXPLANATION    OF    LATIN    WORDS,  ETC.          131 

Deofavente — juvante — volente:  with  GOD's  favor 
— help — will. 

Desideratum  :  a  thing  desired. 

Desunt  cetera :  the  remainder  is  loanting. 

Dies  faustus  :  a  lucky  day  :  dies  infaustus,  an  un- 
lucky day. 

Domine,  dirige  nos  :  O  Lord,  direct  us. 

Dramatis  personse  :  the  characters  of  the  drama,  or, 
the  characters  represented. 

Durante  vita  :  during  life. 

Durante  placito  :  during  pleasure. 

Ecce  homo  :  behold  the  man. 

Ergo  :  therefore. 

Esto  perpetna  :  let  it  be,  perpetual. 

Errata:  errors — erratum,  an  error. 

Et  cetera :  and  the  rest,  and  so  on. 

Excerpt  a  :   extracts. 

Exempli  gratia :  ly  way  of  example  :  [contracted, 
E.g.,  and  Ex.  gr.}. 

Ex  officio  :  by  virtue  of  his  office. 

Ex  parte  :  on  one  side;  an  "ex  parte"  statement, 
that  is,  a  one-sided  statement. 

Ex  tempore,  or,  as  an  English  word,  extempore : 
without  premeditation,  without  previous  study. 

Fac  simile,  or,  as  an  English  word,  facsimile;  an 
engraved  or  lithographed  resemblance  of  hand- 
writing. 

Fas  est  et  ab  hoste  doceri :  it  is  allowable  to  derive 
instruction  even  from  an  enemy. 

Felo  de  se  ;  a  suicide :  in  law  applied  to  one,  who  is 
supposed  to  have  killed  himself  when  in  a 
sound  state  of  mind. 


132        EXPLANATION    OF    LATIN    WORDS,  ETC. 

Fiat :  let  it  be  done. 

Fiat  justitia,  ruat  coelum  :  let  justice  be  done,  tJiough 
the  heavens  should  fall. 

Filius  nullius  :  an  illegitimate  son,  the  son  of  nobody. 

Flagrante  bello  :  during  hostilities.   * 

Gratis  :  for  nothing,  gratuitously. 

Hinc  illae  lachrymae  :  hence  proceed  those  tears. 

Hora  fugit :  time  flies,  or  the  hour  flies. 

Homo  sum  ;  humani  nihil  a  ine  alierium  puto  :  Ia7H 
a  man,  and  deem  nothing,  that  relates  to  man- 
kind, foreign  to  my  feelings. 

Hortus  siccus  :  a  collection  of  the  leaves  of  plants  in 
a  dried  state. 

Humanum  est  errare  :  to  err  is  human. 

Ibidem:  in  the  same  place:  [contracted,  ibid.]. 

Idem :  the  same. 

Id  est :  that  is :  [contracted,  i.  e.] 

Id  genus  omne  :  all  persons  of  that  description. 

Ignis  fatuus  :  the  meteor,  or  electrical  phenomenon 
called  "  Will-o'-the-wisp." 

Ignoramus  :  a  conceited  ignorant  pretender  to  know- 
ledge or  learning.  • 

In  loco  ;  in  this  place. 

Imprimatur  :  let  it  be  printed. 

Imprimis  :  in  the  first  place. 

Impromptu :  without  study. 

In  commendam  :  in  trust. 

In  terrorem :  as  a  warning. 

In  propria  persona :  in  person. 

In  statu  quo  :  in  the  former  state :  just  as  it  was. 

In  forma  pauperis  :  as  a  poor  man. 

In  foro  conscientiae :  before  the  tribunal  of  conscience. 


EXPLANATION    OF    LATIN    WORDS,  ETC.         133 

In  re  :  in  the  matter  of. 

In  t  ran  situ  :  in  passing. 

Index  expurgatorius  :  a  purifying  index. 

Iniquissimam  pacem  justissimo  bello  antefero  : 

prefer  the  most  disadvantageous  peace  to  the 

justest  war.     [The  favorite  maxim  of  FOX.] 
Innuendo  :  an  oblique  hint  or  insinuation. 
Inter  nos  :  between  ourselves. 
Invita  Minerva  :  without  tlie  aid  of  genius. 
Ipse  dixit :  on  his  sole  assertion  ;  he  himself  said  it, 
Ipso  facto  :  by  the  act  itself. 
Ipso  jure  :  by  the  law  itself. 
Item :  also. 
Judex  damnatur  cum  nocens  absolvitur :   the  judge 

is  condemned  [or  llamed]  when  a  guilty  man  is 

acquitted,  or  suffered  to  escape,. 
Jure  divino  :  by  divine  law. 
Jure  humano  :  by  human  law. 
Jus  civile :  by  the  civil  law. 
Jus  gentium  :  the  law  of  nations.  % 

Labor  omnia  vincit :  labour  surmounts  every  difficulty. 
Laudari  a  viro  laudato  :  to  be  praised  by  a  man  wJto 

is  himself  the  object  of  praise. 
Lapsus  linguae  :  a  slip  of  the  tongue. 
Laudator  temporis  acti :  a  praiser  of  past  times. 
Lex  non  scripta :  the  common  law. 
Lex  scripta :  the  statute  law. 
Lex  terrae  :  the  law  of  the  land. 
Litera  scripta  manet :  what  you  have  written  remains 

in  black  and  white. 
Locum  tenens  :  a  deputy,  a  substitute. 
Locus  sigilli  [L.S.]  :  the  place  of  the  seal. 
13 


134        EXPLANATION    OF    LATIN    WORDS,  ETC. 

Licentia  vatum  :  a  'poetical  license. 

Magna  Charta:    The  Great  Charter,  THE  BASIS  OF 

OUR    LAWS    AND    LIBERTIES. 

Magni  nominis  umbra  :  the  shadow  of  a  great  name. 

Mandamus  :  a  royal  order  or  command. 

Medio  tutissimus  ibis:  you  will  act  wisely  by  steer- 
ing a  -middle  course. 

Memento  mori :  remember  that  you  are  to  die. 

Memorabilia  :  matters  deserving  of  record  or  remem- 
brance. 

Mens  sibi  conscia  recti:  a  mind  conscious  to  itself  of 
rectitude. 

Metim  et  tuum :  mine  and  thine. 

Minutiae:  trifles,  minute  parts. 

Mirabile  dictu  :  wonderful  to  tell. 

Mittimus  :  a  writ  to  commit  an  offender  to  prison. 

Multum  in  parvo :  mucJi  in  little — a  great  deal  in  a 
few  words. 

Mutatis  mutandis :  after  making  the  necessary 
^changes. 

Neeessitas  non  habet  leges :  necessity  has  no  law. 

Nem.  con.  Abbreviation  for  nemine  contradicente  : 
Nem.  dis.  Abbreviation  for  nemine  dissentiente : 
WITHOUT  OPPOSITION.  The  former  is  used  in 
the  House  of  Commons;  the  latter  in  the  House 
of  Peers,  to  express  concurrence. 

Nemo  me  impune  lacesset :  no  one  shall  injure  me 
with  impunity. 

Nemo  mortalium  omnibus  horis  sapit :  no  one  is  wise 
at  all  times. 

Nemo  repente  fait  turpissimus  :  no  one  ever  became 
notoriously  vicious  all  at  once. 


EXPLANATION    OF    LATIN    WORDS,  ETC.        135 

Ne  plus  ultra  :  nothing  beyond — the  utmost  point. 

Ne  quid  nimis  :  too  much  of  one  thing  is  good  for 
nothing. 

Ne  sutor  ultra  crepidam  ;  let  not  the  shoemaker  go- 
beyond  his  last,  or,  meddle  with  what  he  docs  not 
understand. 

Nil  conscire  sibi,  nulla  pallescere  culpa :  to  be  con- 
scious of  no  arime,  and  to  turn  pale,  at  no  accu- 
sation. 

Nisi  Doxninus  frustra  :  unless  the  Lord  be  with  us,  all 
our  efforts  will  be  in  vain. 

Nisi  prius  :  unless  before :  a  writ,  by  which  the 
sheriff  is  to  bring  a  jury  to  Westminster  Hall 
on  a  certain  day,  "  unless  before  "  that  day  the 
Lords  Justices  go  into  his  county  to  hold  as- 
sizes. 

Nolle  prosequi :  to  be  unwilling  to  proceed. — This  is 
used  when  a  plaintiff,  having  .  commenced  an 
action,  declines  to  proceed  therein. 

Non  assumsit :  He  did  not  assume. — A  plea  in  per- 
sonal actions,  when  the  defendant  denies  that 
any  promise  was  made. 

Non  constat :  it  does  not  appear. 

Non  compos  mentis :  not  in  one's  senses,  not  of  a  sound 
mind. 

Non  obstante  :  notwithstanding  ;  a  dispensing  power 
in  patents. 

Non  omnia  possumus  omnes :  we  cannot  all  of  us  do 
everything. 

Non  sequitur :  it  does  not  follow  as  a  matter  of  course, 

Nolens  volens  :  willing  or  unwilling. 

Noscitur  ex  sociis  :   he  is  known,  by  his  companions. 


136        EXPLANATION    OF    LATIN    WORDS,  ETC. 

Nota  bene  :  [N.  B.]  mark  well,  take  particular  notice, 
Nunquam  non  paratus  :  always  ready. 
Obiter  dictum  :  a  thing  said  by  tlie  ivay,  or,  in  pass- 
ing. 
Onus  probandi:  tlie  weight  of  proof,  the  burden  of 

proving. 

Opprobrium  medicorum :  the  reproacli  of  the  faculty. 
Omnes  :  all. 
O  !  si  sic  omnia  :   Oh  !  that  he  had  always  done,  or 

spoken  thus. 

O  tempora,  0  mores  !    O  the  time  and  the  manners  ! 
Otium  cum  dignitate  :  ease  with  dignity. 
Otium  sine  dignitate  :  ease  without  dignity. 
Par  nobile  fratrum  :   [said  ironically]  a  noble  pair  of 

brothers. 

Particeps  criminis  :  an  accomplice. 
Passim  :  everywhere. 
Peccavi :  I  have  sinmd. 

Pendente  lite  :  while  the  suit,  or  contest,  is  pending. 
Per  fas  et  nefas  ;  through  right  and  wrong. 
Per  saltum  :  by  a  leap. 
Per  se  :  by  itself. 
Poeta  nascitur,  non  fit :  Nature,  and  not  study,  must 

form  a  poet. 

Posse  comitatus  :  the  power  of  the  county. 
Postulata  :  things  required. 

Praemonitus,  praemunitus  :  forewarned,  fore-armed. 
Praemunire :  a  writ  issued  against  indiriduals,  who 

hold   illegal    communication  with  the  see  of 

Rome. 
Prima  facie  :   on  the  first  view,  or  appearance  ;   at 

first  sight 


EXPLANATION    OF    LATIN    WORDS,  ETC.         137 

Primum  mobile  :  the  main  spring:  the  first  impulse. 

Principiis  obsta :  oppose  the  first  appearance  of  evil. 

Pro  aris  et  focis  :  for  our  altars  and,  firesides. 

Pro  bono  publico  :  for  the  public  good. 

Pro  and  con  :  for  and  against. 

Pro  liac  vice :  for  this  turn. 

Pro  loco  et  tempore  :  for  th e  place  and  time. 

Pro  re  nata  :for  a  special  business:  as  occasion  serves. 

Pro  salute  animae  :  for  the  health  of  the  soul. 

Pro  rege,  lege,  et  grege  :  for  the  king,  the  constitu- 
tion, and  the  people. 

'Pro  tempore :  for  the  time. 

Punica  fides:  Carthaginian  faith — treachery. 

Quantum  :  how  much. 

Quantum  mutatus  ab  illo  !  How  changed  from  what 
he  once  was  ! 

Quid  mmc  1  what  now  ?  applied  to  a  newsJiunter. 

Quid  pro  quo  :  tit  for  tat. 

Quoad  hoc  :  to  this  extent. 

Quo  animo  :  with  what  purpose,  mind,  or  intention  ? 

Quo  jure  :  by  what  right. 

Quoad  :  as  far  as. 

Quod  erat  demonstrandum  :  which  was  meant  to  be 
sliown  or  demonstrated. 

Quondam :  formerly. 

Quorum  :  of  whom;  one  of  the  quorum.  This  des- 
cription of  a  justice  of  the  peace  is  taken  from 
the  words  of  his  "  dedimus." 

Quowarranto?  by  what  warrant?  A  writ  lying 
against  the  person,  who  has  usurped  any  fran- 
chise or  liberty  against  the  king. 

Kara  avis  :  a  rare  bird,  a  prodigy. 
12* 


138        EXPLANATION    OF    LATIN    WORDS,  ETC. 

Re  infecta  :  without  attaining  his  end. 

Requiescat  in  pace  :  may  he  rest  in  peace ! 

Res  angusta  domi:  straitened  circumstances  in  fam- 
ily matters,  in  the  domestic  economy. 

Respice  finem:  look  to  the  end. 

Respublica  :  the  commonwealth. 

Resurgam  :  I  shall  rise  again. 

Rex :  a  king. 

Regina :  a  queen. 

Senatus  consultum :  a  decree  of  the  senate. 

Seriatim  :  in  order. 

Sic  itur  ad  astra :  such  is  the  way  to  immortality. 

Sic  passim  :  so  everywhere. 

Sic  transit  gloria  inundi :  thus  passes  away  the  glory 
of  the  world. 

Sine  die  :  without  specifying  any  particular  day,  to 
an  indefinite  time. 

Sine  qua  non  :  an  indispensable  condition. 

Stat  magni  nominis  umbra:  he  stands  under  the  sha- 
dow of  a  mighty  name,  or,  he  stands  shaded  by 
a  mighty  name. 

Sua  cuique  voluptas  :  every  one  has  his  own  pleas- 
ures. 

Suaviter  in  modo,  fortiter  in  re :  gentle  in  [the]  man- 
ner, but  vigorous  in  [the]  deed,  or  vigorous  in 
action. 

Sub  poena  :  under  a  penalty. 

Sub  silentio  :  in  silence. 

Sui  generis  :  of  its  own  kind. 
Summum  bonum  :  the  chief  good. 
Summurn  jus  summa  injuria :  extreme  law  is  extreme 
injustice. 


EXPLANATION    OF    LATIN    WORDS,  ETC.          139 

Supersedeas  :  a  writ  to  stay  proceedings. 

Suppressio  veri :  a  suppression  of  the  truth. 

Supra:  above. 

Suum  cuique :  let  every  man  have  his  own. 

Taedium  vitae  :  weariness  of  life. 

Tempera  mutantur :  the  times  are  changed,. 

Toties  quoties  :  as  often  as. 

Toto  coelo  :  by  the  whole  heavens — as  opposite  as 
the  poles. 

Tria  juncta  in  uno  :  three  joined  in  one. 

Ubi  supra :  where  above-mentioned. 

Una  voce :  with  one  voice,  unanimously. 

Ultimus  :  the  last  [contracted  ult.]. 

Utile  dulci :  the  useful  with  the  agreeable. 

Uti  possidetis :  as  you  possess,  or,  as  you  now  are. 

Vade  mecum  :  go  with  me — a  constant  companion 
[usually  applied  to  a  publication  intended  *  for 
the  pocket.] 

Verbatim:  word  for  word. 

Versus :  against. 

Veni,  vidi,  vici:  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered. 
[Caesar's  despatch  to  the  Roman  Senate.] 

Venire  facias :  the  writ  for  summoning  a  jury. 

Venienti  occurrite  morbo  :  meet  the  approaching 
disease. 

Vale  :  farewell. 

Via  :   by  the  way  of. 

Vice  :  in  the  room  of. 

Vice  versa :  the  terms  being  exchanged. 

Vide  :  see :  [contracted  into  v.]. 

Vide  ut  supra :  see  as  above — see  the  preceding  state- 
ment. 


140        EXPLANATION    OF    LATIN    WORDS,  ETC. 

Vi  et  armis :  liy  main  force. 

Vincit  amor  patriae  :    the  love  of  our  country  is  ike 

predominant  feeling. 
Vis  inertiae  :  a  property  of  matter. 
Vis  poStica  :  poetic  genius. 
Viva  voce  :  orally,  by  word  of  moutli:  a  viva  voce 

examination,  that  is,  an  oral  examination. 
Vivat  Regina  :  long  live  the  Queen  ! 
Vivida  vis  animi :  the  lively  vigor  of  genius. 
Viz. :  [videlicet] — namely. 

Vox  et  praeterea  nihil :  a  voice  and  notliing  more. 
Vox  populi,  vox  Dei :  the  voice  of  the  people  is  the 

voice  of  G  OD. 
Vulgo  :  commonly. 
Vultus  est  index  animi :  the  countenance  is  the  index 

of  the  mind. 


141 


EXPLANATION  OF  FRENCH  WORDS 
AND  PHRASES  OF  FREQUENT  OCCURRENCE. 

Aide-de-camp  :  an  assistant  to  a  general. 

A  la   bonne  heure :    well  and  good,  very  well. — 

Arriver  a  la  bonne  heure :  to  come  just  in  time, 

at  the  right  mojnent. 
Affaire  de  coeur  :  a  love  affair. 
A  la  mode  :  according  to  the  fashion,  in  fashion. 
A  propos  :  seasonably,  opportunely,  to  the  purpose. 
An  fond :  to  the  bottom,  or,  main  point,  after  all. 
A  fond :  thoroughly. 
Bagatelle :  a  trifle. 
Beau   monde :   persons   of  fashion,    the   world   of 

fashion,  the  fashionable  world. 
Bel-esprit :  a  man  of  wit.     The  plural  is,  beaux- 

esprits  :  men  of  wit. 
Bien  entendu  :  of  course,  be  it  understood,  it  being 

understood. 

Billet  doux  :  a  love-letter. 

Bon  mot :  apiece  of  wit,  a  witticism,  or,  witty  saying. 
Bon  ton  :  in  high  fashion,  in  good  taste. 
Bon  gr6  mal  gre  :  willing  or  unwilling,  whether  one 

will  or  not. 

Bonjour :  good  day;  good  morning. 
Bonsoir:  good  evening ;  good  night. 
Boudoir:  a  lady's  small  private  apartment. 
Bref :  in  short. 


142         EXPLANATION    OF    FRENCH    WORDS,  ETC. 

Carte  blanche  :  unconditional  terms :  power  to  act 
according  to  one's  own  discretion.  N.B.  "Carte 
blanche"  literally  means  a  Hank  card,  or, 
ticket;  a  card,  or,  ticket  not  written  on. 

Chateau  :  a  country  seat,  abode,  or,  residence. 

Chef  d'oeuvre  :  a  master-piece. 

Ci-devant :  formerly  :  my  ci-devant  preceptor,  that 
is,  my  former  preceptor. 

Com  me  il  faut :  properly,  as  it  should  be. 

Conge  d'elire :  generally  used  in  reference  to  the 
election  of  a  bishop  or  a  dean :  permission  to 
choose,  or,  elect. 

Coup  de  grace  :  the  finishing  stroke. 

Coup  d'oeil :  a  glance. 

Coup  de  main :  a  sudden,  or,  bold  enterprise,  under- 
taking. 

Coup  d'etat :  a  stroke  of  state  policy. 

Debut :  a  first  appearance  in  public:  in  the  fashion- 
able world,  a  coming  out. 

Depot:  a  storehouse. 

Douceur :  a  present,  in  return  for  a  situation,  or, 
appointment,  procured  by  private  influence :  in 
other  words,  a  bribe.  N.B.  The  word  is  used 
in  FRANCE,  simply  to  mean  reward,  profit,  or, 
gratuity. 

Dieu  et  mon  droit :   GOD  and  my  right. 

Eclat :  distinction,  applause. 

Eleve  :  a  pupil. 

Enfin :  at  length — at  last. 

En  masse  :  in  a  body,  or,  mass. 

En  passant :  by  the  way,  often  applied  to  a  remark 
casually  made. 


EXPLANATION  OF  FRENCH  WORDS,  ETC.    143 

Ennui :  wearisomeness,  lassitude,  inability  for  ex- 
ertion. 

Faux  pas  :  a  deviation  from  the  path  of  virtue,  an 
act  of  indiscretion :  literally,  a  false  step. 

Fete  :  a  festival :   entertainment. 

Fracas  :  a  fuss  about  a  trifle,  or,  a  mere  nothing,  a 
hubbub. 

Honi  soit  qui  mal  j  pense  :  evil  be  to  him,  that  evil 
thinks. 

Hauteur  :  haughtiness :  a  ridiculous  affectation  of 
pride  and  reserve. 

Je  ne  sais  quoi :  I  know  not  what :  an  expression 
applied  to  something,  that  cannot  well  be  de 
scribed — that  baffles  description. 

Jeu  de  mots  :  a  play  upon  words. 

Jeu  d'esprit :  a  display  of  wit :  a  witticism. 

Mal  a  propos  :  unseasonable,  ill-timed,  out  of  place. 

Mauvaise  honte  :  slieepislmess,  extreme  basJifulness. 

Mot  du  guet :  Mot  de  passe  :  a  watchword. 

Naivete  :  artlessness,  unstudied  simplicity,  ingenu- 
ousness, innocence. 

Outre  :  outrageous  ;  out  of  all  reason,  or,  character : 
unreasonable :  preposterous.  N.B.  The  word 
is  used  in  FRANCE  simply  to  mean  exaggerated. 

Petit  maitre  :  a  fop:  a  coxcomb  :  a  puppy. 

Protege  :  one,  who  is  patronized*  and  whose  interest 
is  promoted  by  a  person  of  rank.  N.B.  The 
feminine  is  protlg^e. 

Rouge :  red  :  a  kind  of  paint,  sometimes  used  by 
ladies  for  painting  their  cheeks. 

Sans :  without. 

Sang-froid  :    coolness,   indifference — "  he  heard  the 


144        EXPLANATION    OF    FRENCH   WORDS,  ETC. 

news  with  the  greatest  sang-froid"  that  is  to 
say,  "  he  took  it  very  easily" — or,  he  listened 
to  it  with  the  greatest  composure. 

Savant :  a  learned  man  :  a  man  of  science  :  one  of 
the  literati,  that  is,  one  of  the  learned  world. 

N.B.  The  plural  of  savant  is  savants,  learned  ment 
men  of  science. 

Soi-disant  :  self-styled  :  a  pretender  to  knowledge 
or  rank  ;  as,  a  soi-distant  colonel :  a  soi- distant 
mathematician.  The  epithet  is  often  applied 
to  literary  quacks. 

Tapis :  carpet ;  "  the  affair  is  on  the  tapis"  that  is, 
"the  affair  is  in  agitation,  in  contemplation." 

Trait :  feature,  a  touch  of  character. 

Tete-a-tete  :  a  private  conversation  between  two  per- 
sons. 

Uniqu£  :  "  the  book  is  unique"  that  is,  "is  the  only 
one  in  existence" 

Valet-de-chambre  :  a  man,  wlio  attends  a  gentleman, 
who  is  dressing  himself. 

Vive  le  roi:  long'live  the  king! 


145 


ON  ABBREVIATIONS. 

A.'B.orJS.A.artmmbacca-  B.C.  before  Christ. 

laureus,  bachelor  of  arts.  B.D.  bachelor  of  divinity. 
Adj.  adjective.  Benj.  Benjamin. 

Adv.  adverb.  Bp.  bishop. 

Ans.  answer. 

Abp.  archbishop.  Capt.  captain. 

Acct.  account.  Chas.  Charles. 

A.C.   ante   Christum,  be-  C.  or  cent,  a  hundred. 

fore  Christ.  Chron.  Chronicles. 

A.D.  anno  Domini,  in  the  Co.  company  ;  county. 

the  year  of  our  Lord.     Col.  colonel. 
Adm.  administrator.  Coll.  college. 

A.M.  ante  meridiem,  be-  Cor.  Corinthians. 

fore    noon  ;     or,    anno  Cr.  credit,  or  creditor. 

mundi,  in  the  year  of  Cwt.  hundred  weight. 

the  world  ;  or,  artium 

magister,      master     of  D.  [d.]  denarius,  a  penny, 

arts.  or  pence.. 

Anon,  anonymous.  D.D,  doctor  of  divinity. 

Apr.  April.  Dec..  December. 

A.U.C.  anno    urbis    con-  Deg,  degree,  or,  degrees. 

ditae,  in  the  year  of  the  Dep.  deputy. 

city  [Rome].  Deut.  Deuteronomy. 

Aug.  August,  Do.  or  ditto,  the  same. 

Doz.  dozen. 

Bart,  baronet.  Doct.  doctor. 

Bl.  barrel.  Dr.  debtor;  doctor. 

13 


146 


ON    ABBREVIATIONS. 


Dwt.  pennyweight. 

E.  east. 

Eccl.  Ecclesiastes. 

Ed.  editor  ;  edition. 

E.  g.  exempli  gratia,  for 

example. 
Eph.  Ephesians. 
Esq.  esquire 
Etc.  ct  cetera,  and  so  on. 
Ex.  Exodus  ;  example. 
Exr.  executor. 


Hon.  honorable. 
Hund.  hundred. 

Ib.  or  Ibid,  ibidem,  in  the 

same  place. 
Id.  Idem,  the  same. 
I.  e.  id  est,  that  is. 
Incog.      incognito, 

known. 
Inst.  instant,  i.  e.  present 

or,  of  this  month. 
Isa.  Isaiah. 


Feb.  February. 
Fig.  figure. 
Fol.  folio! 
Fr.  French. 

F.R,S.  fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society. 

Gal.  Galatians. 
'  Gall,  gallon. 
Gen.  Genesis ;  general. 
Gent,  gentleman. 
Geo.  George. 
Gov.  governor. 

Heb.  Hebrews. 
Hhd.  hogshead. 
H.M.  His  or  Her  Majesty, 
H.B.M.     His  or  Her  Bo- 
tanic Majesty. 


Jan.  January. 
Jas.  or  Ja.  James. 
Jno.  John. 
Jona.  Jonathan. 
Jos.  Joseph. 
Josh.  Joshua. 
Jun.  or  Jr.  junior. 

Kt.  Knight. 

Lam.  Lamentations. 

Lat.  latitude. 

Lev.  Leviticus. 

Lieut,  lieutenant. 

LL.B.  legum  baccalau- 
reus,  bachelor  of  laws. 

LL.D.  legum  doctor,  doc- 
tor of  laws. 

Lon.  longitude. 


ON    ABBREVIATIONS.  147 

L.S.  locus  sigilli,  the  place  Num.  Numbers, 
of  the  seal.  N.W.  north-west. 

M.  inille,  a  thousand.          Obt.  obedient. 

M.A.  master  of  arts.  Oct.  October. 

Maj.  Major.  O.S.  old  style. 

Mar.  March.  Oxon.  Oxonia,  Oxford. 

Matt.  Matthew.  Oz.  ounce,  or  ounces. 

M.B.  medicine   baccalau- 

reus,  bachelor  of  medi-  Per  cent,  per  centum,  by 

cine.  the  hundred. 

M.D.     medicinae    doctor,  Pet.  Peter. 

doctor  of  medicine.          PL  plural. 
Messrs.  Messieurs.  P.M.  post-master. 

M.P.  member  of  Parlia-  P.M.  post  meridiem,  after- 

ment.  noon. 

Mr.  Mister.  P.O.  post  office. 

Mrs.  Mistress.  Prob.  problem. 

M.S.  manuscript.  Prof,  professor. 

MSS.  manuscripts.  Prop,  proposition. 

P.S.  post  scriptum,  post- 
N.  north.  script. 

N.B,  nota  benc,  take  par-  Ps.  psalms. 

ticular  notice. 

N.E.  North-east.  Q.  or  qu.  question. 

Nem.  con.  ne?nine  contra-  Q.E.D.  quod  erat  demon- 

dicenta^o  one  opposing.      strandum,  which  was  to 
No.  number.  be  demonstrated. 

Nov.  November.  Q.  v.  quod  vide,which  sea 

N.S.  new  style.  Qr.  quarter. 

N.T.  New  Testament.        Qt.  quart 


148  ON    ABBREVIATIONS. 

Rev.  reverend ;    Revela-  Ult.  ultimo  [last,]  the  last 

tion  month. 

R.N.  royal  navy.  U.S.  United  States. 

Robt.  Robert. 

Rom.  Romans.  V.  or  vid.  vide,  see. 

Rt.  Hon.  right  honorable.  Viz.     videlicet,     to     wit 

namely, 

S.  South.  Vol.  volume. 

Sec.  Secretary.  Vols.  volumes. 

S.E.  South-east.  Vs.  versus,  against. 

Sen.  senior. 

Sept.  September.  W.  west. 

Sq.  square.  W.  I.  West  Indes. 

St.  saint ;  street.  Wk.  week. 

S.T.D.  sanctae  thcologiae  Wm.  William. 

doctor,  doctor  of  theo-  Wt.  weight. 

logy,  or  divinity. 
S.W.  south-west.  Yd.  yard. 

Yds.  yards. 
Thess.  Thessalonians. 
Thos.  Thomas.  4to.  quarto. 

Tim.  Timothy.  8vo.  octavo. 

Tit.  Titus.  12mo.  duodecimo. 

Tr.  translator ;  treasurer.  18mo.  octodecimo 


149 


COMMON    MISTAKES,    THAT    OCCUR    DAILY,    IN 
SPEAKING,  WRITING,  AND  PRONUN- 
CIATION, CORRECTED  AND 
EXPLAINED. 

"  We  must  never  offend  against  Grammar ;  nor  make  use  of  words  which 
are  not  really  words.  This  is  not  all :  for  not  to  speak  ill  is  not  sufficient; 
•we  must  speak  well.  Vu'gariBm,  in  language  is  a  distinguishing  charac- 
teristic of  bad  company,  and  a  bad  education." — LORD  CHESTERFIELD. 

1.  HAVE  you  learned  French  yet]    say,  learnt, 
as  learned  is  now  used  only  as  an  adjective :    as,  a 
learned  man :  pronounce  learned  in  two  syllables. 

2.  The  business  would  suit  any  one    who  enjoys 
bad  health  :  [from  an  advertisement  in  a  New  York 
newspaper:]    say,   any  one  in  a  delicate  state  of 
health,  or,  whose  health  is  but  indifferent. 

3.  "  We  have  no  corporeal  punishment  here,"  said 
a  schoolmaster  once  to  the  author  of  this  little  work : 
corporeal  is  opposed  to  spiritual :  say,  corporal  pun- 
ishment.     Corporeal  means  having  a   body.     The 
Almighty  is  not  a  corporeal  being,  but  a  Spirit,  as 
St.  John  tells  us. 

4.  I  offered  to  renumerate  him :  say,  remunerate. 

5.  We  keep  them  at  various  prices :  pronounce 
prices  exactly  as  written,  and  not  prizes. 

6.  That  was  a  notable  circumstance :  pronounce 
the  first  syllable  of  notable   as  no  in  notion  :   Mrs. 
Johnson  is  a  notable  housewife,  that  is  to  say,  care- 
ful :  pronounce  the  first  syllable  of  notable  as  not  in 
Nottingham. 

7.  Put  an  advertisement  in  the  "Herald:'*  pro- 

13* 


150  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

nounce  advertisement  with  the  accent  on  ver  and 
not  on  tise. 

8.  He  rose  up,  and  left  the  room  :  leave  out  up. 

9.  Set  down,  and  rest  yourself:  say,  sit  down, 

10.  You  have  sown  it  very  badly:  say,  sewed  it. 

11.  Between  you  and  /he  is  not  very  generous  : 
say,  you  and  me. 

12.  Let  you  and  /take  a  walk  :  say,  Let  you  and 
me.     Who  would  think  of  saying,  Let  I  go  ? 

13.  I  lay  doivn  4n  the  afternoon  for  an  hour  or 
two  :  say,  I  He  down. 

14.  Mr.  Dupont  learnt  me   French :  say,  taught. 
The  master  teaches,  but  the  pupil  learns. 

15.  John  and  Henry  both  read  well,  but  John  is 
the  lest  reader :  say,  the  better  reader,  as  lest  can 
only  be  said  when  three  or  more  persons  or  objects 
are  compared. 

16.  The  two  first  pupils  I  had  :    say,  the  first 
two. 

17.  He  has  mistook  his  true  interest:  say,  mis- 
taken. 

18.  Have  you  lit  the  fire,  Mary?  say,  lighted. 

19.  The  doctor  has  not  yet  came :    say,  is  not  yet 
wine. 

20.  I  have  always  gave  him  good  advice :  say, 
given. 

21.  To  be  is  an  auxiliary  verb  :  pronounce  auxil- 
iary in  five  syllables,  sounding  the  second  i,  and  not 
in  four,  as  we  so  frequently  hear  it. 

22.  He  is  librarian  to  a  public  institution :  sound 
t\iz  first  r  distinctly:  the  word  is  often  pronounced 
libarian* 


MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE.  151 

23.  Constable's   Miscellany  was   an  interesting 
publication :  pronounce  miscellany  with  the  accent 
on  mis  and  not  on  ceL 

24.  Celery  is  a  pleasant  edible  :  pronounce  celery 
as  it  is  written,  and  not  salary. 

25.  Are   you  at  leisure  ?  pronounce  lei  in  leisure 
the  same  as  Lei  in  Leith  and  not  so  as  to  rhyme 
with  measure. 

26.  Have  you  seen  the  Miss  Browns  lately  ?  say, 
/Vie  Misses  Brown. 

27.  You  have  soon  forgot  my  kindness :  say,  for- 
gotten. 

28.  He  keeps  Ids  coach :  say,  Ids  carriage. 

29.  John  is  my  oldest  brother  :  say,  eldest :   elder 
and  eldest  are  applied  to  persons — older  and  oldest 
to  things. 

30.  Disputes  have  frequently  arose  on  that  sub- 
ject :  say,  arisen. 

31.  The  cloth  was  wove  in  a  very  short  time:  say, 
woven. 

32.  French  is  spoke  in  every  state  in  Europe :  say, 
spoken. 

33.  He  writes  as  the  best  authors  would  have 
wrote,  had  they  writ  on  the   same   subject :   say, 
would  have  written — had  they  written. 

34.  I  prefer  the  yolk  of  an  egg  to  the  white  : 
say,  yelk,  and  sound  the  I. 

35.  He  is  now  very  decrepid:  say,  decrepit. 

36.  I  am  very  fond  of  sparrowgrass ;  say,  aspa- 
ragus, and  pronounce  it  with  the  accent  on  par. 

37.  You  are  very  mischievous  :  pronounce  mis- 


152  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

chievous  with  the  accent  on  mis,  and  not  on  chie, 
and  do  not  say  mischievious. 

38.  It  was  very  acceptable  :    pronounce  accepta- 
ble with  the  accent  on  cept,  and  not  on  ac,  as  we  so 
often  hear  it. 

39.  That  depends :   say,  that  depends  on  circum- 
stances. 

40.  "  No  conversation  be  permitted  in  the  Read- 
ing Room  to  the  interruption  of  the  company  pre- 
sent: neither  Smoking  or  Refreshments  allowed:'7 
[from  the  Prospectus  of  a  "  Literary  and   Scientific 
Institution  :"]  insert  can  after  conversation,  and  say, 
neither  S?noJcing  nor  Refreshments. 

41.  No  extras  or  vacations  :   [from  the  prospectus 
of  a  schoolmistress,]   say,  neither  extras  nor  vaca- 
tions. 

42.  He  is  very  covetous :  pronounce  covetous  as 
if  it  were  written  covet  us,  and  not  covetyus,  as  is 
almost  universally  the  case. 

43.  I   intend  to  summons  him :  say,   summmon  : 
summons  is  a  noun,  and  not  a  verb. 

44.  He   does   not  learn    arithmetic :  say,   arith- 
metic, and  pronounce  it  with  the  accent  on  rith,  and 
never  on  met,  as  we  sometimes  hear  it. 

44.  Dearly  beloved  brethren  :  pronounce  beloved 
in  three  syllables,  and  never  in  two,  as  some  clergy- 
men do. 

46.  He  is  now  forsook  by  every  one :  say,  for- 
saken. 

47.  Not  as  I  know  :  say,  that  I  know. 

48.  This  is  different  to  that :  say,  different  from. 


MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE.  153 

49.  He  cameybr  to  do  it :  leave  out  for. 

50.  The  book  lays  on  the  table  :  say,  lies.     A 
person  lays  a  book  on  the  table,  but  the  book  lies 
on  the  table. 

51.  He  would  never  believe  but  what  I  did  it : 
say,  but  that  I  did  it. 

52.  They  have  just  rose  from  the  table  :    say, 
risen. 

53.  He  is  quite  as  good  as  me  :  say,  as  good  as  I. 

54.  Many  an  dne  has  done  the  same  :  say,  many 
a  one.     A,  and  not  an,  is  used  before  the  long  sound 
of  u,  that  is  to  say,  when  u  forms  a  distinct  syllable 
of  itself :  as,  a  unit,  union,  a  university  ;  it  is  also 
used  before  a  eu:  as,  a  euphony,  and  likewise  be- 
fore the  word  ewe :  as,  a  ewe :  we  should  also  say, 
a  youth,  not  an  youth. 

55.  Many  people  think  so  :  say,  Many  persons, 
as  people  means  a  nation. 

56.  "  When  our  ships  sail  among  the  people  of 
the  Eastern  islands,  those  people  do  not  ask  for  gold  : 
'iron,  iron!'  is  the  call."     [From  a  work  by  a  Peer 
of  literary  celebrity.]     Say,  among  the  inhabitants; 
and,  instead  of  those  people*  which  is  ungrammatical, 
say,  those  persons.     These  kind,  and  these  sort,  are 
very   objectionable  expressions,   as  they  are   alto- 
gether incorrect :  say,  this  kind,  this  sort. 

57.  Was  you  reading  just  now  ]  say  Were  you, 

58.  He  has  ran  all  the  way  :  say,  run. 

59.  You  should  have  went  home :  say,  gone. 

60.  Him  and  me  took  a  nice  walk  :  say,  He  and  I. 

61.  John  went  with  James  dud  I:  say,  Jame* 
and  me. 


154  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

62.  I  have  not  had  no   dinner  yet :  say,  I  have 
had  no  dinner  yet,  or  I  have  not  yet  had  my  dinner, 
or,  any  dinner. 

63.  She  will  never  be  no  taller  :  say.  she  will  never 
be  taller,  or,  she  will  never  be  any  taller. 

64.  I  see  him  last  Monday :  say,  saw  him. 

65.  The  weather  is  now  much  more  warmer:  say, 
much  warmer. 

66.  He  was  averse  from  such  a  proceeding-:  say, 
averse  to. 

67.  He  has  wore  his  boots  three   months :  say, 
worn.  » 

68.  He  has  trod  on  my  toes  :  say,  trodden. 

69.  Have  you  shook  the  cloth  ?  say,  shaken. 

70.  I  have  rang  several  times  :  say  rung. 

71.  I  knoived  him  at  once:  say,  knew. 

72.  He  has  growcd  very  much  :  say,  grown. 

73.  George  \\asfell  down  stairs  :  say,  fallen. 

74.  You  have  drank  too  much  of  it :  say,  drunk. 

75.  He  has  chose  a  very  poor  pattern  :  say  chosen. 

76.  They  have  broke  a  window  :  say,  broken. 

77.  I  have  just  began  my  letter :  say,  begun. 

78.  Give  me  them  books  :   say,  those  books. 

79.  My  brother  gave    me    them  there  pictures  : 
say,  gave  me  those  pictures. 

80.  Whose  are  these  here  looks  ?  say,  these  books. 

81.  Who  do  you  mean  1  say,  Whom. 

82.  The  men  which  we  saw  :  say,  whom. 

88.  The  books,  what  you  have  :  say,  whicJi,  or 
that. 

84.  The  boy  as  is  reading:  say,  who  is  reading. 

85.  It  was  them  who  did  it :  say,  they. 


MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE.  155 

86.  It  is  me  who  am  in  fault :  say,  It  is  I. 

87.  Was  it  her  who  called  me  1  say,  she. 

88.  If  I  were  her  I  would  accept  his  offer  :  say, 
If  I  were  she. 

89.  The  pond  is  froze  :   say,  frozen. 

90.  He  has  took  my  slate  :  say,  taken. 

91.  I    know  I  am  him,  whom  lie  meant:  say,  1 
am  he. 

92.  He  has  often  stole  money  from  him  :  say, 
stolen. 

93.  They  have  drove  very  fast:   say,  driven. 

94.  I  have  rode  many  miles  to-day  :  say,  ridden. 

95.  You  cannot  catch  him  :  pronounce  catch  so  as 
to  rhyme  with  match,  and  not  ketch. 

96.  Who  has  got  my  slate  ]  leave  out  got. 

97.  What  are  you  doing  of?  leave  out  of. 

98.  Who  done  it  ?  say,   Who  did  it? 

99.  If  I  was  rick,  I  would  buy  a  carriage :  say, 
if  I  were. 

100.  We  have  all  within   us  an  impetus  to  sin  : 
pronounce  impetus  with  the  accent  on   im,  and  not 
on  pe,  as  is  very  often  the  case. 

101.  "  Who's  got  this   boy's  Grammar  book  ?"  a 
common  expression  in  schools  :  say,   Who  has  thi-s 
boy's  Grammar  ? 

102.  We  amuse   ourselves  with  gymnastic  exer- 
cises :  pronounce  gym  as  gim  in   the  word  gimlet, 
and  not  jim. 

103.  Spain  and  Portugal  form  a  peninsula:  pro. 
nounce  peninsula  with  the  accent  on  in,  and  not  on 
su,  as  we  often  hear  it. 

104.  Sardanapalus :  pronounce   it  with   the  ac- 


156  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

cent  on  pa,  and  not  on  ap,  as  is  almost  universally 
the  case. 

105.  He  may  go  to  the  antipodes  for  what  I  care  : 
pronounce  antipodes  with  the  accent  on  tip,  and  let 
des  rhyme  with  ease :  it  is  a  word  of  four  syllables, 
and  not  of  three,  as  most  persons  make  it. 

106.  Vouchsafe  :  a  word  seldom  used,  but  when 
used,  the  first  syllable  should  rhyme  with  pouch  : 
never  say,  vousafe. 

107.  Ginger  is  a  good  stomachic  :  pronounce  stom- 
achic with  the  accent  on  mack,  sounding  this  sylla- 
ble mah,  and  not  mat,  as  is  often  the  case. 

108.  The  land  in  those  parts  is  very  fertile:  pro- 
nounce  fertile  so  as  to  rhyme  with  pill.     The  He  in 
all  words  must  be  sounded  ill,  with  the  exception 
of  exile,  senile,  gentile r  reconcile,  and  camomile,  in 
which  He  rhymes  with  mile. 

109.  It  is  surprising  the  fatigue  he  undergoes  : 
say,  The  fatigue  he  undergoes  is  surprising. 

110.  Benefited:  often  spelt  benejitted,  but  incor- 
rectly.. 

111.  Gather  up  the  fragments :  pronounce  gather 
so-  as  to  rhyme  with  lather,  and  not  gether. 

112.  I   bought  yesterday  a  quantity  of  books: 
say,  a  number  of  books  ;  quantity  can  only  be  used 
in  answer  to  the  question,  how  much  ?"  number  in 
answer  to  the  question,  "  how  many?" 

113.  I  propose  going  to  town  next  week :  say, 
purpose. 

114.  If  I  am  not  mistaken,  you  are  in  the  wrong: 
say,  If  I  mistake  not. 


MISTAKES    OF    DAILV   OCCURRENCE.  157 

115.  Direct  your  letters  to  me  at  Mr.  Jones's: 
say,  Address  your  letters. 

116.  "  He  didn't  ought  to  have  his  salary  rose" 
said  a  schoolmistress  in  reference  to  the  minister  of 
the  chapel  she  attended :  say,  He  ought  not  to  have 
ki$  salary  raised. 

117.  Who  do  you  think  I  saw  yesterday  ?  say 
Whom. 

118.  Wales  is  a  very  mountainious  country  :  say, 
mountainous,  and  place  the  accent  on  moun. 

119.  Of  two  evils  choose  the  least:  say,  the  less. 

120.  Exag ' gerate :    pronounce  exad '  gerate,    and 
do  not  sound  agger  as  in  the  word  dagger  which  is 
a  very  common  mistake. 

121.  Ladies  school :  the  usual  form,  but  not  cor- 
rect :  write,  Ladies'  school. 

122.  He  knows  little  or  nothing  of  Latin:  say, 
little,  if  anything,  of  Latin. 

123.  Decorous,  indecorous,  dedecorous  :  mihQ  first 
and  second  words  lay  the  accent  on  the  syllable  co  : 
in  the  last  word  lay  it  on  the  second  syllable,  de. 

124.  He  keeps  a  chaise  :  pronounce  it  shaise,  and 
not  shay  ;  it  has  a  regular  plural  chaises. 

125  The  drought  lasted  a  long  time  :  pronounce 
drought  so  as  to  rhyme  with  snout,  and  not  drowth. 

126.  The  man  was  hung  last  week :  say,  hanged : 
but  say,  I   am  fond  of  hung  beef.     Hang,  to  take 
away  life  ~by  hanging,  is  a  regular  verb. 

127.  We  conversed  together  on  the  subject :  leave 
out  together,  as  it  is  implied  in  conversed,  con  being 
equivalent  to  with,  that  is  to  say,   We  talked  with 
each  other,  &c. 

14 


158  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

128.  The  affair  was  coin-promised. :  pronounce  com- 
promised in  three  syllables,  and  place  the  accent  on 
com,   sounding   mised  like  prized  :    the   word  has 
nothing  to  do  with  promised.     The  noun  compro- 
mise is  accented  like  compromised,  but  mise  must  be 
pronounced  mice. 

129.  A  steam-engine  :  pronounce  engine  with  en, 
as  in  pen,  and  not  like  in,  and  gine  like  gin. 

130.  Numbers  were  massacred :  pronounce  mas- 
sacred with  the  accent  on  mas,  and  red  like  erd,  as 
ifmas'sakcr'd,  never  mas'sacreed. 

131.  The  king  of  Israel  and   the  king  of  Judah 
•sat  either  of  them  on  his  throne  :   say  each  of  them. 

Either  signifies  the  one  or  the  other,  but  not  both. 
Each  relates  to  two  or  more  objects,  and  signifies 
botli  of  the  two,  or  every  one  of  any  number  taken 
singly.  Never  say,  "  either  of  the  three,"  but  '(  each 
of  the  three." 

132.  A  respite  was  granted  the  convict :  pronounce 
respite  with  the  .accent  on  res,  and -sound  pite  as  pit. 

133.  He   soon  returned  bach:  leave   out  back, 
which  is  implied  by  re  in  returned. 

134.  The  horizon  is  the  line,  that  terminates  the 
view :  pronounce  horizon  with  the  accent  on  ri, 
and  not  on  ho,  which  is  often  the  case. 

135.  That  is  St.  Sepulchre's  Church  :  pronounce 
Sepulchre's  with  the  accent  on  Sep,  and  not  on  the 
second  syllable. 

136.  The  meat  is  quite  rere :  pronounce  rere  as 
mere,  and  never  like  rare. 

137.  She  has  sang  remarkably  well :  say,  sung. 

138.  He  had  sank  before  assistance  arrived  :  say. 
sunk 


MISTAKES    OF    DAILY   OCCURRENCE.  159 

139.  I  have  often  swam  across  the  Hudson  :  say, 
swum. 

140.  I  found  my  friend  better  than  I  expected  to 
have  found  him  :  say,  to  find  him. 

141.  I  intended  to  have  written  a  letter  yester- 
day :  say,  to  write,  as  however  long  it  now  is  since 
I  thought  of  writing,  "to  write"  was  then  present 
to  me,  and  must  still  be  considered  as  present,  when 
I  bring  back  that  time  and  the  thoughts  of  it. 

142.  I  learn  drawing:  carefully  avoid  inserting 
an  r  between  words  or  syllables,  of  which  the  for- 
mer ends  with  a  vowel,  and  the  latter  begins  with 
one :  thus,  do  not  say,  dr a  wring  for  drawing,  I  sawr 
Anne  yesterday,  for  I  saw,  &c. 

143.  His  death  shall  be  long  regretted :   [from  a 
notice  of  a  death  in  a  newspaper  :]  say,  will  be  long, 
&c.     Shall  and  will  are  often  confounded  ;  the  fol- 
lowing rule,  however,  may  be  of  use  to  the  reader  : 
'msrs  futurity  is  expressed  by  shall  in  i\\e  first  per- 
son, and  by  will  in  the  second  and  third :  the  deter- 
mination of  the  speaker  by  will  in  the  first,  and 
shall  in  the  second  and  third,  as,  I  WILL  go  to-mor- 
row, I  SHALL  go  to-morrow.     N.  B.  The  latter  sen- 
tence simply  expresses  a  future  event ;  the  former 
expresses  my  determination. 

144.  "  Without  the  grammatical  form  of  a  word 
can  be  recognized  at  a  glance,  little  progress  can  be 
made  in  reading  the  language"  [from  a  very  popu- 
lar work  on  the  study  of  the  Latin  language] :  say, 
Unless  the  grammatical,  &c.     The  use  of  without 

for  unless  is  a  very  common  mistake. 

145.  Have  you  begun  substr action  yet  ?  say,  sub- 
traction. 


160  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

146.  He  claimed  admission  to  the  chief est  offices  : 
say,  chief.     Chief,  right,  supreme,  correct,  true,  uni- 
versal, perfect,  consummate,  extreme,  &c.,  imply  the 
superlative  degree  without  est  or  most.      In  lan- 
guage impassioned,  however,  the  word  perfect  re- 
quires the  superlative  form  to  give  it  effect.     A 
lover,  enraptured  with  his  mistress,  would  naturally 
call  her  the  most  perfect  of  her  sex. 

147.  The  ship  had  sprang  a  leak  :  say,  sprung. 

148.  I  had  rather  do  it  now  :  say,  I  ivould  ra- 
ther. 

149.  He  was  served  with  a  subpoena  :  pronounce 
subpo3iia  with  the   accent  on  pee,  which  you  will 
sound  like  tea,  and   sound  the  b  distinctly :  never 
pronounce  the  word  soopee'na. 

150.  His  court-of-arms  is  very  splendid,  say  coat- 
of-arms. 

151.  Dr.  Evans  is  one  of  the  prebends  :  say  pe- 
bendaries. 

152.  They  ride  about  in  small  carriages,  which 
are  called  flies  :  write  the  last  word  flys :  flies  is 
the  plural  of  fly,  the  insect. 

153.  I  have  not  travelled  this  twenty  years  :  say 
these  twenty  years. 

154.  He  is  very  mucJi  the  gentleman  :  say,  He  is 
a  very  gentlemanly  man,  or  fellow. 

155.  The  yellow  part  of  an  egg  is  very  nourish 
ing :  never  pronounce  yelloio  the   same  as  tallow, 
which  we  so  often  hear. 

156.  We  are  going  to  the   Zoological  Institute : 
pronounce  Zoological     in  five  syllables,  and  place 
the  accent  on  log  in  logical :  sound  log  like  lodge, 


MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE.  161 

and  the  first  two  o's   in  distinct   syllybles :    never 
make  Zool  one  syllable. 

157.  He  strived  to  obtain  an  appointment :  say, 
strove. 

158.  He  always  preaches  EXTEMPORE  :  pronounce 
EXTEMPORE  in  four  syllables,  with  the  accent  on  tern, 
and  never  in  three,  making  pore  to  rhyme  with  sore. 

159.  Naught  and  aught :  never  spell  these  words 
nought  and  ought :  there  is  no  such  word  as  nought, 
and  ought  is  a  verb. 

160.  Allow  me  to  suggest :  pronounce  sug-  so  as 
to  rhyme  with  mug,  and  gest  like  jest :  never  sud- 
jest. 

161.  That  building  is  an  episcopal  chapel :  pro- 
nounce episcopal  with  the  accent  on  pis,  and  not  on 
co,  as  we  often  hear  it. 

162.  The  Emperor  of  Russia  is  SL  formidable  per- 
sonage :  pronounce  formidable  with   the  accent  on 
for,  and  not  on  mid,  as  is  often  the  case. 

163.  Before  the  words  heir,  herb,  honest,  honour, 
hospital,  hostler,   hour,   humble,  and    humour,   and 
their  compounds,  instead  of  the  article  a,  we  make 
use  of  an,  as  the  h  is  not  sounded  :  likewise  before 
words  beginning  with  H,  that  are  not  accented  on 
the  first  syllable  :  such  as  heroic,  historical,  hypoth- 
esis, &c.,  as  an  heroic  action  :  an  historical  work  : 
an  hypothesis  that  can  scarcely  be  allowed.     N.B. 
The  letter  .ZJis  seldom  mute  at  the  beginning  of  a 
word :  but  from  the  negligence  of  tutors,  arid  the 
inattention  of  pupils,  many  persons  have  become 
almost  incapable  of  acquiring  its  just  and  full  pro- 
nunciation.    It  is,  therefore,  incumbent  on  teachers 

14* 


162  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

to  be  particularly  careful  to  inculcate  a  clear  and 
distinct  utterance  of  this  sound. 

164.  He  was  such  an  extravagant  young  man, 
that  he  soon  spent  his  whole  patrimony  :  say,  so 
extravagant  a  young  man. 

165.  The  girl  speaks  distinct:    say,   distinctly. 
Never  use  Adjectives  as  Adverbs. 

166.  He  was   reading  the  "  Times/'   when  the 
train  stopped  at  "Reading:"  pronounce  "Read- 
ing"  so  as  to  rhyme  with  dreading. 

167.  In  a  field  near  "  Slough"  I  met  with  the 
slough  of  a  snake :  pronounce  the  former  "  Slough" 
so  as  to  rhyme  with  bough,  the  latter  slough  with 
rough. 

168.  The  queen  took  an  airing  with  her  august 
mother  last  August :  pronounce  the  former  august 
with  the  accent  on  gust. 

169.  She  is  quite  the  lady  :  say,  She  is  very  lady- 
like in  her  demeanour. 

170.  He  is  seldom  or  ever  out  of  town  :  say,  sel- 
dom, if  ever,  out  of  town. 

171.  We  laid  down  to  sleep :  say,  we  lay  down, 
&c. 

172.  Death  unloosed  his  chains :  say,  loosed  his 
chains. 

173.  It  is  dangerous  to  walk  of  a  slippery  morn- 
ing :  say  on  a  slippery  morning. 

174.  He,  who  makes  himself  famous  hy  his  elo- 
quence, illustrates  his  origin,  let  it  be  never  so  mean: 
say,  ever  so  mean. 

175.  His  fame  is  acknowledged  through  Europe  : 
say,  throughout  Europe. 


MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE.  163 

176.  The   bank  of  the  river  is  frequently  over- 
flown :  say,  overflowed. 

177.  Previous  to  my  leaving  England  I  called 
on  his  lordship  :   say,  previously  to  my  leaving,  &c. 

178.  I   doubt  if  this  will  ever  reach  you:  say, 
whether  this,  &c. 

179.  It  is  not  improbable  but  I  may  be  able  to 
procure  you  a  copy  :  say,  that  I  may,  &c. 

180.  He  was  exceeding  kind  to  me  :  say  exceed- 
ingly kind. 

181.  I  doubt  not  but  I  shall  be  able  :  say,  that  I 
shall. 

182.  I  lost  near  ten  dollars  :  say,  nearly. 

183.  Bills  are  requested  to   be  paid  quarterly  : 
say,  It  is  requested  that  bills  be  paid  quarterly. 

184.  There  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  he  will  suc- 
ceed :  leave  out  but. 

185.  It  was  no  use  asking  him  any  more  ques- 
tions :  say,  of  no  use  to  ask  him  &c.    • 

186.  I  throwed  my  box  away,  and  never  took  no 
more  snuff :  say,  I  threiu  &c.,  and  took  snuff'  no  more. 

187.  The  estate  was  to  have  been  sold  as  this 
day  :  leave  out  as. 

188.  She  was   endowed  with  an   exquisite  taste 
for  music :  say,  endued  with  &c. 

189.  I  intend  to  stop  at  home :  say,  to  stay. 

190.  At  this  time   I  grew  my  own  corn:  say,  I 
raised  &c. 

191.  He  was  no  sooner   departed  than  they  ex- 
pelled his  officers  :  say,  he  had  no  sooner  &c. 

192.  He  ivas  now  retired  from  public  business: 
say,  had  now  retired  &c. 


164  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

193.  They  ivere  embarked  in  a  common  cause  : 
say,  had  embarked  &c. 

194.  Having  incautiously  laid  down  on  the  damp 
grass,  he  had  caught  a  severe  cold  :  say,  lain  down. 

195.  We  suffered  no  other  inconvenience  but  that 
arising  from  cold  :  say,  than  that  &c. 

196.  Hostilities  were  now  become  habitual :  say, 
had  now  become. 

197.  Brutus  and  Aruns  killed  one  another  :  say, 
each  other. 

198.  Pray,  Sir,  who  may  you  be  ?  say,  who  are 
you  ? 

199.  Their  character  as  a  warlike  people  is  much 
degenerated  :  say,  has  much  &c. 

200.  He  is  gone  on  an  errand  :  pronounce  errand 
as  it  is  written,  and  not  arrand. 

201.  In  a  popular  work  on  Arithmetic,  published 
by  order  of  certain  Commissioners  of  National  Ed- 
ucation,  we   find  the  following  sum :  "  If  for  $1  I 
can  buy   9  Ibs.  of  raisins,  how  much  can  I  purchase 
for  $10?"  say,  "what  quantity  can  I"  &c.     Who 
would  think  of  saying,  "how  much  raisins  1"  &c. 

202.  Be  very  careful  in  distinguishing  between 
indite  and  indict;  key  and   quay ;   principle  and 
principal;  check    and   cheque;  marshal  and  mar- 
tial ;  counsel  and  council  ;  counsellor  and  councillor; 
fort   and  forte ;    draft    and    draught ;    place  and 
plaice;  stake  and  steak;  satire  and  satyr ;  station- 
ery and  stationary ;  ton  and   tun;  levy  and  levee; 
foment  &nA  ferment ;  fomentation  and  fermentation; 
petition  and  partition  ;  practice  2^^.  practise  ;  Fran- 
ois  and  Frances  ;  dose  and  doze ;  diverse  and  di- 


MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE.  165 

vers ;  device  and  devise;  wary  find  weary;  salary 
and  celery  ;  radish  and  reddish  ;  treble  and  triple  ; 
broach  and  brcoch;  ingenious  and  ingenuous ;  pro- 
phesy and  prophecy  ;  fondling  and  foundling  ;  light- 
ning and  lightening  ;  genus  and  genius  ;  desert  and 
dessert;  currier  and  courier;  pillow  and  pillar; 
executer  and  executor  ;  suit  and  suite;  ridicule  and 
reticule;  lineament  and  liniment  ;  track  and  tract  ; 
lickerish  and  licorice  ;  statute  and  statue  ;  ordinance 
and  ordnance ;  lease  and  /£#«?&  /  recourse  and  re- 
sowrce;  straight  and  strait;  immerge  and  emerge; 
style  and  stile;  compliment  and  complement ;  bass 
and  £#«?e  ;  contagious  and  contiguous  ;  eminent  and 
imminent ;  eruption  and  irruption ;  precedent  and 
president ;  relic  and  relict. 

203.  I  prefer  radishes  to  cucumbers :  pronounce 
radishes  exactly  as  spelt,  and  not  redishes,  and  the 
first  syllable  of  cucumber  like  6Zw  in  ^eZ,  and  not  as 
if  the  word  were  cowcumber. 

204.  Never  pronounce   barbarous  and  grievous, 
barbai'ious  and  grievious. 

205.  The  £wo  /<z^  chapters  are  rery  interesting : 
say,  The  7#,$tf  ^0  &c. 

206.  The  soil  on  these  islands  is   so  very  thin, 
that  little  vegetation  is  produced  upon  them  beside 
cocoa-nut  trees  :  say,  with  the  exception  of  &c. 

207.  He  restored  it  back'to  the  owner  :  leave  out 
back. 

208.  The  following  expressions  are  by  some  per- 
sons considered  objectionable  :  they  are,  however, 
so  far   sanctioned  by  custom,  that  any  deviation 
from  them  would  be  looked  on  as  pedantic :  He 


166  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

lives  opposite  the  church ;  the  very  best ;  tlie  very 
worst;  lie  need  not  go;  she  dare  not  come;  this 
house  to  let  ;  lie  could  neither  read  nor  write  ;  they 
were  bred  and  born  in  New  York ;  some  writers 
would  have  us  say,  opposite  to,  &c. ;  the  best  and 
the  worst,  leaving  out  very ;  lie  needs  not,  &c. ; 
she  dares  not,  &c. ;  to  be  let,  neither  ivritc  nor 
read;  born  and  bred,  &c. 

209.  Here,  there,  where,  are  generally  better  than 
hither,  thither,  whither,  with  verbs   of  motion  :    as 
"  Come  here,  Go  there.     N.B.     Hither,  thither  anl 
whither,  which  were  used  formerly,  are  now  consid- 
ered stiff  and  inelegant. 

210.  As  far  as  Jam   able   to  judge,  the  book  is 
well  written  :  say,  So  far  as  &c. 

211.  It  is  doubtful  whether  he  will  play  fairly 
or  no  :  say  fairly  or  not. 

212.  "  The  Pilgrim's  Progress :"  pronounce  Prog- 
ress, prog-ress,  not  2^'o-gress. 

213.  He  is  a  boy  of  a  great  spirit :  pronounce 
spirit  exactly  as  it  is  written,  and  never  sperit. 

214.  The  camelopard  is  the  tallest  of  known  ani- 
mals :    pronounce   camelopard  with   the  accent  on 
the  second  syllable ;  never  call  it  camel  leopard,  as 
is  so  often  heard. 

215.  He  is  very  awkward :  never  say,  aickard. 

216.  He  ran  again  me  :  I  stood  again  the  wall : 
instead  of  again,  say,   against.     Do  it   again  the 
time  I  mentioned  :  say,  by  the  time  &c. 

217.  I  always  act  agreeable  to  my  promise:  say, 
agreeably. 


MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE.  167 

218.  The  study  of  Syntax  should  be  previously 
to  that  of  Punctuation  :  say,  previous. 

219.  No  one  should  incur  censure  for  being  ten- 
der of  their  reputation  :  say  of  his  reputation. 

220.  They  were  all  drownded:   say,  drowned. 

221.  Jalap  is  of  great  service  :  pronounce  Jalap 
exactly  as  it  is  written  :  NEVER  Jollop. 

222.  His   curiosity  is    unbounded :     pronounce 
curiosity  \\ijive  syllables,  and  never  say  curosity. 

223.  He  is  gone  on   a  tour :  pronounce   tour  so 
as  to  rhyme  with  poor,  never  like  tower. 

224.  The  rain  is  ceased  :  say,  has  ceased. 

225.  Do   you   know  who  this   book  belongs  to? 
say,  whom  &c.,  or  to  whom  this  book  belongs? 

226.  Who  did  you  inquire  for?  say,   Whom,  or 
For  whom  did  you  inquire  ? 

227.  Whom  say  ye  that  I   am  ?  say,  Who  say 
ye  &c. 

228.  Do   you  know  who  you  are  speaking  to  ? 
say,  whom  &c.,  or,  Do  you  know  to  whom  &c. 

229.  They  laid  their  heads  together,  and  formed 
their    plan :    say,    They   held   a   consultation    &c. ; 
"  laid  their  heads  together"  savours  of  SLANG. 

230.  The  chimley  wants  sweeping  :  say,  chimney. 

231.  I  was  walking  towards  home  :  pronounce  to 
wards  so  as  to  rhyme  with  boards,  never  say  towards. 

232.  It  is  a  stupenduous  work  :  say,  stupendous. 

233.  A  courier  is  expected  from  Paris  :  pronounce 
cou  in  courier  so  as  to  rhyme  with  too  ;  never  pro- 
nounce courier  like  currier. 

234.  Let   each   of  us  mind   their  own  business : 
gay,  his  own  business. 


168  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

235.  Who  made  that  noise  ?  Not  me  :  say,  Not  J. 

236.  Is  this  or  that  the  best  road?  say,  the  better 
road. 

237.  Rinse  your  mouth :  pronounce  rinse  as  it  is 
written,  and  NEVER  rense.     "Wrench  your  mouth," 
said  a  fashionable  dentist  one  day  to  the  author  of 
this  work. 

238.  He  was  tired  of  New  York,  and  flew  into  the 
country :  say,  fled. 

239.  The  book  is  not  as  well  printed  as  it  ought 
to  be  :  say,  so  well  printed  &c. 

240.  "  We  don't  like  our  parson,"  an  expression 
often  used  contemptuously  :  let  those,  however,  who 
make  use  of  it  ruminate  on  what  Judge  Blackstone 
says  in  reference  to  the  word  parson  :  "  The  appel- 
lation of  a  parson  (however  it  may  be  depreciated 
by  familiar,  clownish,  and  indiscriminate  use)  is  the 
most  legal,  most  beneficial,  and  most  honourable 
title  that  a  parish  priest  can  enjoy ;  because  such  a 
one,  (as  Sir  Edward  Coke  observes,)  and  he  only, 
is  said  vicem  sen  personam  ecclesics  gerere"  that  is 
to  say,  to  represent,  or,  be  the  representative  of,  the 
church. 

341.  Webster's  Dictionary  IB  an  admirable  work  : 
pronounce  Dictionary  as  if  written  Dik-shun-ary  : 
not,  as  is  too  commonly  the  practice,  Dixonary. 

242.  I  should  be  sorry  to   be  beholding  to  him  : 
say,  beholden. 

243.  He  is  a  despicable  fellow,  and  such  an  epi- 
thet is  strictly  applicable  to  him  :  never  place  the 
accent  in   despicable  and  applicable  on   the   second, 
syllable,  but  always  on  t\\s  first. 


MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE.  169* 

244.  Some  disaster  lias  certainly  befell  him  ;  say, 
befallen. 

245.  Carefully  distinguish  between  sergeant  and 
serjeant :  they  are  both  pronounced  sarjant  but  the 
former  is  used  in  a  military  sense,  the  latter  when 
applied  to  a  lawyer. 

246.  The  prologue  is  well  written :  never  pro- 
nounce prologue  pro-log,  but  prol-log. 

247.  He  lays  in  bed  too  long  :  say,  lies. 

I  have  a  work  laying  by  me,  ready  for  the 
press  :  say  lying. 

Go  and  lay  down  on  the  bed :  say,  lie. 

I  laid  and  slept  an  hour :  say,  lay. 

I  was  laying  on  the  grass  :  say,  lying. 

He  has  laid  there  a  long  time  :  say,  lain. 

He  has  lain  himself  down  to  rest :  say,  laid. 

Let  me  set  down  :  say  sit. 

I  then  went  and  set  down :  say  sat. 

The  hen  is  setting  on  her  eggs  :  say,  sitting. 

N.B.  To  lay  (something  down),  in  the  pre- 
sent tense  is  lay,  in  the  past  laid,  and  the 
participle  is  also  laid.  To  lie  (down),  is 
lie  in  the  present,  lay  in  the  past,  and  lain 
(formerly  lien)  in  the  participle.  Lie  is 
conjugated  regularly,  when  it  means  "  to 
tell  a  falsehood  ;"  as  "he  lied:  he  lias 
lied,  then." 

Set  is  a  neuter  verb  in  some  senses,  which 
makes  it  proper  to  say,  "  to  set  out  on  a 
journey;  to  set  up  in  business  ;  to  set  off 
from  a  place ;  the  sun  sets*;  and  fair 
weather  has  set  in." 
15 


170  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

248.  She  is  a  pretty  creature  :  never  pronounce 
creature,  creeter,  as  is  often  heard. 

249.  We  went  to  see  the  Bunker  Hill  Monument : 
pronounce   Monument  exactly  as  it  is  written,  and 
not  as  many  pronounce  it,  Moniment. 

250.  Watercresses    are    very    wholesome :    pro- 
nounce cresses  as  it  is  written,  and  not  creases. 

251.  I  am  very  wet,  and  must  go  and  change  my- 
self: say,  change  -my  clothes. 

252.  He  has   had  a  good  education  :  never  say, 
cdication,  which  is  so  often  heard,  nor  edicate  for 
educate. 

253.  He  is  taller  than  me :  say,  than  I. 

254.  He  is  much  better  than  me :  say,  than  I. 

255.  You  are  stronger  than  him :  say,  than  he. 

256.  I  had  as  lief  stand  :  say,  I  would  as  soon 
stand. 

257.  He  is  not  a  whit  better ;  say,  in  no  degree 
better. 

258.  They  are  at  loggerheads :  say,  at  variance. 

259.  His  character  is   undeniable:  a  very  com- 
mon expression  :  say,  unexceptionable. 

260.  The  florist  showed  me  a  florin:  never  say 
flo-rist  an&jlo-rin,  but  pronounce  the  former  part  of 
each  word  exactly  as  in  "  Florence." 

261.  Bring  me  the  lantern  :  never  spell  lantern — 
lanthorn. 

262.  The  room  is  twelve  foot  long,  and  nine  foot 
broad  :  say,  twelve  feet,  nine  feet. 

263.  He  is  a  Highlander :   never  say  Heelander. 

264.  He  is  singular,  though  regular  in  his  habits, 
and  also  very  particular :  beware   of  leaving  out 


MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE.  171 

the  u  in  singular,  regular,  and  particular,  which  is 
a  yery  common  practice. 

265.  They  are  destined  at  France  :  say,m  France. 

266.  No  less  than  fifty  persons  were  there :  say, 
No  fewer  &c. 

267.  Suck    another   mistake,    and    we    shall    be 
ruined:  say,  Another  such  mistake,  &c. 

268.  It  is  some  distance  from  our  house :  say,  at 
some  distance  &c. 

269.  I  shall  call  upon  him :  say,  on  him. 

270.  Keinove  those  trestles:    pronounce  trestles 
exactly  as  it   is  written,  only  leaving  out  the  t : 
never  say  trusslcs. 

271.  He  is  much  addicted  to  raillery :  pronounce 
raillery  exactly  as  it  is   written,  only  leaving  out 
the  i :   never  say,  rail-le-ry. 

272.  He  is  a   Doctor    of  Medicine :    pronounce 
medicine  in  three  syllables,  NEVER  in  two. 

273.  His  mother  was  a  marchioness :  pronounce 
marchioness  as  if  written  march-un-ess,  NEVER  marsh- 
un-ess. 

274.  They  told  me  to  enter  in :  leave  out  in,  as 
it  is  implied  in  enter. 

275.  His  strength  is  amazing:  never  say,  strenth* 

276.  "  Mistaken  souls,  who  dream  of  heaven :" 
This  is  the  beginning  of  a  popular  hymn  :  it  should 
be,^'  Mistaking  souls,  &c."     Mistaken  wretch,  for 
mistaking  wretch,  is  an  apostrophe  that  occurs  eve- 
rywhere   among    our  poets,  particularly  those   of 
the  stage ;  the  most  incorrigible  of  all,  and  the  most 
likely  to  fix  and  disseminate  an  error  of  this  kind. 

277.  Give  me  both  of  those  books  :  leave  out  of* 


172  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

278.  Whenever  I  try  to  write  well,  I  always  find 
I  can  do  it :  leave  out  always,  which  is  unnecessary. 

279.  He  plunged  down  into  the  stream :    leave 
out  down. 

280.  I  never  saw  his  nephew :  never  say  nevvey 
for  nephew,  which  is  very  often  heard. 

281.  She  is  the  matron:  say  may-iron,  and  not 
mat-ron. 

282.  Give  me  leave  to  tell  you:  NEVER  say  leaf 
for  leave. 

283.  The  height  is  considerable :  pronounce  height 
so  as  to  rhyme  with  tight :  never  hate  nor  heighth. 

284.  Who  has  my  scissors  ?  never  call  scissors, 
sithe.rs. 

285.  He    has  obtained   a   good   situation :    pro- 
nounce situation  as  it  is  written,  and  neither  sitia- 
tion  nor  sitivation,  b@th  by  no  means  unusual. 

286.  First  of  all  I   shall  give  you  a  lesson  in 
French,  and  last  of  all  in  music  :  leave  out  of  all  in 
both  instances,  as  unnecessary. 

287.  I  shall  have  finished  by  the  latter  end  of 
the  week ;  leave  out  latter,  which  is  unnecessary. 

288.  They   sought    him    throughout    the    ivhole 
country :    leave    out    whole,    which   is    implied   in 
throughout. 

289.  Iron  sinks  down  in  water :  leave  out  down. 

290.  A  warrant  was  issued  out  for  his  apprehen- 
sion :  leave  out  the  word  out,  which  is  implied  in  issued. 

291.  If  you  inquire  for  why  I  did  so,  I  can  give 
a  very  good  reason  :  leave  out  for. 

292.  I  own  that  I  did  not  come  soon  enough  :  but 
because  why  ?  I  was  detained :  leave  out  because. 


MISTAKES    OF    DAELY    OCCURRENCE.  173 

293.  Have  you  seen  the  new  pantomime  ?  never 
say  pantomine,  as  there  is  no  such  word. 

294.  I  cannot  by  no   means  allow  it  r  say,  I  can 
by  no  means  &c. :  or,  I  cannot  by  any  means  &cr 

295.  He  covered  it  over :  leave  out  over. 

296.  I  bought  a  new  pair  of  shoes  :  say,  a  pair 
of  new  shoes. 

297.  He  combined  together  these  facts  :  leave  out 
together. 

298.  My  brother  called  on  me,  and  we  both  took 
a  walk  :  leave  out  both,  which  is  unnecessary. 

299.  "  Evil  spirits    are  not  occupied  about   the 
dead  corpses  of  bad  men  :"  leave  out  dead,  which  is 
altogether  unnecessary,  as  it  is  implied  in  the  word 
corpses,   "corpse"   and  "dead  body"  being  strictly 
synonymous.     [The  sentence  is  from  the  pen  of  a 
most  learned  and  distinguished  living  prelate.] 

300.  He  was  born  in  January,  and  she  in  Febru- 
ary :  pronounce  January  as  it  is  written,  and  not 
Jennivery,  and  beware  of  leaving  out  the  u  in  Feb- 
ruary, or  of  calling  the  word  Febbevery. 

301.  The  invalid  signed  a  deed  that  was  invalid  : 
pronounce  the  former  "  invalid"  with  the  accent  on 
the  last  syllable,  sounding  lid  as  if  it  were  written 
leed :  the  latter,  with  the  accent  on  the  second. 

302.  He  turned  him  into  ridicule  :  Never  indulge 
in  ridicule  :  NEVER  say,  redicule. 

303.  The  duke  discharged  his  duty  :  sound  the  u 
in  duke  and  duty  like  the  word  you.  and   carefully 
avoid  saying,  dook  and  dooty,  or  doo  for  dew. 

304.  Genealogy,   geography,    and    geometry   are 
words  of  Greek  derivation  :  beware  of  saying  gene- 

15* 


174  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY   OCCURRENCE. 

'ology,   jography,    and   jometry,    a   very    common 
practice. 

305.  He  keeps  Ms  chariot :  pronounce  chariot  in 
three    syllables,  and   beware    of  calling  the  word 
char-rut. 

306.  He  made  out  the  inventory  :  place  the  accent 
in  inventory  on  the  syllable  in,  and  NEVER  on  ven. 

307.  He    deserves   chastisement:    say,    chas-tiz- 
ment  with  the  accent  on  chas,  and  NEVER  on  tise. 

308.  He  threw  the  rind  away :  never  call  rind, 
rine. 

309.  His  knowledge  is  very  great :  always  pro- 
nounce knowledge  so  as  to  rhyme  with  college,  and 
NEVER  say,  know-ledge. 

310.  They  contributed  to  his  maintenance :  pro- 
nounce maintenance  with  the  accent  on  main,  and 
never  say,  maintainance. 

311.  She  wears  a  silk  gown  never  say  gownd. 

312.  Sussex  is  a  maritime,  county  :  pronounce  the 
last  syllable  of  maritime  so  as  as  to  rhyme  with 
rim. 

313.  They  desisted  from  their  design  :  pronounce 
the  former  s  in  desisted  like  the  s  in  resisted,  and 
always   pronounce    design    as    if    written   de-zine, 
NEVER  de-sign. 

314.  They  committed  a  heinous  crime  :  pronounce 
heinous  so  as  to  rhyme  with  "rein  us:99  NEVER  call 
the  word  heen-nus. 

315.  He  hovered  about  the   enemy:    pronounce 
hovered  so  as  to  rhyme  with  covered. 

316.  He   is    a  powerful    ally:    never  place  tto 
accent  on  al  in  ally,  as  many  do. 


MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE.  175 

317.  She  bought  a  diamond  necklace  :  pronounce 
diamond  in  three  syllables;  NEVER  in  two,  winch  is 
a  very  common  practice. 

318.  "  We  have  never  been  called  almost  to  the 
consideration  of  the  Apocalypse,   without  finding 
fresh  reasons  for  our  opinion  :"    Such  are  the  words 
of  a  very  eminent  Reviewer.    He  should  have  said, 
"  We  have  scarcely  ever  been  called"  &c. 

319.  He  is  very  bigoted  :  never  spell  the  last 
word  with  doublet,  a  very  common  mistake. 

320.  He  reads  the  "  Weekly  Despatch"  NEVER 
spell  the  word  despatch,  dispatch. 

221.  He  said  as  how  you  was  to  do  it :  say,  he 
said  that  you  were  to  do  it. 

322.  Never  say,  "  I  acquiesce  with  you"  but,  "  / 
acquiesce  in  your  proposal,  in  your  opinion"  &c. 

323.  He  is  a  distinguished  antiquarian :  say,  an- 
tiquary.    Antiquarian  is  an  adjective ;  Antiquary, 
a  noun. 

324.  A  Reviewer  expresses  himself  thus,  in  refer- 
ence to  Webster's  Dictionary  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage : — lt  It  is  the  most  complete,  accurate,  and 
reliable   Dictionary    of    the    Language. "      As    an 
attempt  is  being  made  to  introduce  "  reliable"  to  our 
notice,  in  the  absence  of  a  single  word  conveying 
the  same  idea,  the  writer  of  these  pages  would  sug- 
gest as  a  slight  improvement  the  word  "  RELIONA- 
BLE."     By-the-by,  as  the  words  "  complete"  and 
"  accurate"  imply  the  superlative  degree  without 
est  or  most,  would  not  the  Reviewer  have  expressed 
himself  better,  had  he  said,  "  It  is  a  complete  and 


176  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

accurate   Dictionary  of  the  Language,  and   one  on 
which  implicit  reliance  may  be  placed." 

325.  In  Goldsmith's  "History   of  England/'   a 
book  used   in  nearly  every  school  in  the  United 
States,  and  which  is  remarkable  for  its  carelessness 
of  style,  we  find  the  following   extraordinary  sen- 
tence in  one  of  the.  chapters  of  the  reign  of  Queen 
Elizabeth :    '•  This"    [a    communication    to    Mary, 
Queen  of  Scots]  "  they  effected  by  conveying  their 
letters  to  her  by  means  of  a  brewer  that  supplied 
the  family  with  ale  through  a  chink  in  the  wall  of 
her  apartment"     A  queer  brewer  that — to  supply 
his  ale  through  a  chink  in  the  wall !     How  easy  the 
alteration  to  make  the  passage  clear  !     "  This  they 
effected  by  conveying  their  letters  to  her  through  a 
chink  in  the  wall  of  her  apartment,  by  means  of  a 
brewer  that  supplied  the  family  with  ale" 

326.  Lavater  wrote    on    Physiognomy :  In   the 
last  word  sound  the  g  distinctly,  as  g  is  always  pro- 
nounced before  n,  when  it  is  not  in  the  same  sylla- 
ble ;  as,  indignity  &c. 

327.  She  is  a  very  clever  girl:  pronounce  girl  as 
if  written  gcrl :    never    say   gal,    which   is   very 
vulgar. 

328.  He  built  a  large  granary  :  pronouce  gran- 
ary so  as  to  rhyme  with  tannery :  never  call  the 
word  grainary. 

329.  Beware    of  using    Oh !  and    O  indiscrimi- 
nately :    Oh  !  is  used  to    express  the  emotion  of 
pain,  sorrow,  or  surprise  ;  as,  "  Oh  !  the  exceeding 
grace  of  God,  who  loves  his  creatures   so."     O  is 


MISTAKES   OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE.  177 

used  to  express  wis7iing9  exclamation,  or  a  direct 
address  to  a  person  ;  as, 

"  0  mother,  will  the  Grod  above 
Forgive  my  faults  like  thee?" 

330.  Some  writers  make  a  distinction  between 
farther  and  further — they  are,  in  fact,  the  very 
same  word :  further,  however,  is  less  used  than  jfar- 
t7ier,  though  it  is  the  genuine  form. 

331  Cider  is  made  in  several  counties:  never 
spell  Cider  with  a  y. 

332.  He  did  it  unbeknown  to  us :  say,  unknown 
&c. 

333.  "  Equal  to  bespoke"  an  expression,  that  may 
often  be  seen  in  bootmakers'  windows  :  say,  "  Equal 
to  bespoken" 

334.  He  lives  in  affluence,  as  he  is  in  affluent  cir- 
cumstances: beware  of  placing  the  accent  in  afflu- 
ence and  affluent  on  the  syllable  Jin,  instead  of  on 
of:  a  very  common  error. 

335.  If  I  say,  "  They  retreated  back,"  I  use  a 
a  word,  that  is  superfluous,  as  back  is  implied  in  the 
syllable  re  in  retreated  :  never  place  the  accent  on 
flu  in  superfluous,  but  always  on  per. 

336.  In  reading  Paley's  "  Evidences  of  Christian- 
ity," I  unexpectedly  lit  on  the  passage  I  wanted  : 
say,  met  with  the  passage  &c. 

337.  He  has  ordered  a  phditon  from  his  coach- 
maker  :  beware  of  saying,  pheton  or  photon :  the 
word  should  always  be  pronounced  in  three  sylla- 
bles with  the  accent  on  pha.    N.B.  In  pha-e-ton  the 
a  and  e  do  not  form  a  dipthong,  as  many  suppose : 
the  word  is  of  Greek  origin. 


178  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

338.  In  conversing  with  an  unmarried  lady,  never 
say,  "Yes,  miss — No,   miss"  which   are  downright 
cockneyisms,  but,  "  Yes,  madam — No,  madam." 

339.  "How's  yourself  this  morning  ?"  an  exceed- 
ingly  common,  but  very  objectionable  expression : 
say,  "  How  arc,  you"  &c. 

340.  "  Wanted,    two    apprentices,    who    will   be 
treated  as    one   of  the   family  :"  very    common  in 
the  advertising  columns  of   the  newspapers  :   say, 
"  Wanted, as  members  of  the  family." 

341.  Instead  of  me  going  to  Baltimore,  I  went  to 
Richmond  :  say,  Instead  of  going  &c.,  as  me  or  my 
is  altogether  unnecessary. 

342.  'Broccoli  is  a  species  of  cabbage  :  beware  of 
pronouncing  "  broccoli"  Irockilow,  which  is  so  often 
heard. 

343.  Be  careful  in  using  the  hyphen  (-)  correctly: 
it  joins  compound  words,  and  words  broken  by  the 
ending  of  the  line.    The  use  of  the  hyphen  will  ap- 
pear more    clearly   from    the    following    example  : 
"  many  coloured  wings"  means  many  wings,  which 
are  coloured;  but   u  many -coloured    wings"    means 
"  wings  of  many  colours" 

344.  He  had  to  wait  in  an  antechamber:  carefully 
avoid  spelling  the  last  word  anti-cliambcr.     N.B. 
An  antechamber  is  the   chamber  that  leads  to  the 
chief  apartment.     Ante  is  a   LATIN  PREPOSITION, 
and  means  before,  as  to  antedate,  that  is  "  to  date 
beforehand."     Anti  is  a  GREEK  PROPOSITION,  and 
means  against,  as  KntwionarchicaJ,  that  is,  "  against 
government  by  a  single  person." 


MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE.  179 

345.  The  axe  was  very  sharp  :  never   spell   axe 
without  the  e. 

346.  The  force  of  voice,  which  is  placed  on  any 
particular  word  or  words  to  distinguish   the   sense, 
is  called  emphasis,  and  those  words  are  called  em- 
phatical  words :  as,  "  Grammar  is  a  useful  science  :" 
in  this  sentence  the  word  useful  is  emphatical.    The 
great  importance   of  emphasis  may  be  seen  by  the 
following  example: 

1.  Will  you  call  on  me  to-morrow  ? 
Yes,  I  shall  [call]. 

2.  Will  you  call  on  me  to-morrow  ? 
No,  but  I  shall  call  on  your  brother. 

3.  Will  you  call  on  me  to-morrow  ? 
No,  but  I  shall  on  the  following  day. 

4.  Will  you  call  on  me  to-morrow  ? 
No,  but  my  brother  will. 

347.  Never  say  o-fences  for   offences ;  pison  for 
poison ;  co-lection    for    collection ;  voiolent   for  vio- 
lent ;  kiver  for  cover  ;  afeard  for  afraid ;  debbuty 
for   deputy  (the  last  three  examples  very  common 
in  the  City  of  New  York). 

348.  He  is   a  mere  cipher;  never  spell  cipher 
-with  a  y. 

349.  I  was  necessitated  to   do  it :  a  vile  expres- 
sion, and   often   made  worse  by  neccssiated  being 
used :  say,  I  was  obliged,  or,  compelled,  to  do  it. 

350.  He  is  a  lunatic :  never  place  the  accent  on 
the  second  syllable  of  lunatic,  which  is  very  com- 
mon in  some  parts  of  the  Union. 

351.  Gibbon  wrote  the  "Rise  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire  :"  pronounce  Rise  with  the  noun,  so 


180  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

as  to  rhyme  with  price;  Rise,  the  verb  rhymes 
with  prize. 

352.  He  joined   his  regiment  last  week :  never 
say  ridgiment  for  regiment. 

353.  Have  you  been  to  the  National  Gallery  ? 
Never   pronounce  National   as  if  it  were  written, 
Na.y-shun-al,  a  very  common  error,  and  by  no  means 
confined  to  the  lower  classes. 

354.  I  bought  a  new  umbrella:  beware  of  pro- 
nouncing umbrella,  umbcrclla,  or,  vmberellcr,  both 
very  common  errors. 

355.  He  bought  a  gimlet  /  never  spell  the  last 
word  gimblet,  as  many  do. 

356.  He  is  a  supporter  of  the  Government :  be- 
ware of  omitting  the  n  in  the  second  syllable  of 
Government;  a  very  common  practice. 

357.  He    strenuously  maintained  the  contrary  : 
never  place  the  accent  on  the  second  syllable  in  con- 
trary.    In   the  ancient    and   time-honoured   ditty, 

however,  of 

"  Mistress  Mary, 
Quite  contrary, 

How  does  your  garden  grow  ?7' 
a  ballad  with  which  we  are  all  more  or  less  familiar, 
the  word  "  contrary"  is  accented  on  the  second  syl- 
lable, so  as  to  rhyme  with  the  name  of  the  venera- 
ble dame,  to  whom  these  memorable  lines  were  ad- 
dressed. 

358.  "  Received  this  day  of  Mr.  Brown,  Ten  Dol- 
lars :"  say,  "  Received  this  day  from  &c. 

359.  "  What  case  is  the  word  dominus  ?"  "  The 
nominative,  Sir."     In  the  hurry  of  school  pronun- 


MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE.  181 

elation  "  nominative"  is  nearly  always  heard  in  three 
syllables,  as  if  written  nomnative.  or  nomative,  an 
error,  that  should  be  very  carefully  avoided :  it  is 
a  word  of  four  syllables. 

360.  Of  whatever   you  get,   endeavour  to  save 
something  ;  and,  with  all  your  getting,  get  wisdom  : 
carefully  avoid  saying,  git  for  get,  and  gifting  for 
getting. 

361.  So  intent  was  he  on  the  song  he  was  sing- 
ing, as  he  stood  by  the  fire,  that  he  did  not  perceive 
that  his  clothes  were  singeing.     IST.B.  Verbs  ending 
with  a  single  e  omit  the  e  when  the  termination  ing 
is  added,  as,  give,  giving ;  in  singeing,  however, 
the  e  must  be  retained,  to  prevent  its  being   con- 
founded with  singing. 

362.  The  boy  had  a  swingeing  for  swinging  with- 
out permission  :  Read  the  preceding  note. 

363.  The    man  who  was  dyeing-,   said   that    his 
father  was  then  dying.     Head  the  note  in  361,  in 
reference  to  dyeing,  and  observe  that  die  changes 
the  i  into  y  before  the  addition  of  the  termination  ing. 

364.  Lower  the  sails,  as  the  sky  begins  to  lower 
pronounce  the  low  in  the  former  "  lower"  so  as  to 
rhyme  with  mow,  and  the  low  in  the  latter  "  lower" 
so  as  to  rhyme  with  cow. 

365.  There  was  a  great  row-  on  Monday,  in  Irv- 
ing Row  :  pronounce  the  former  row  so  as  to  rhyme 
with  cow,  the  latter  row  so  as  to  rhyme  with  mow. 

366.  His  surname  is  Clifford  :  never  spell  the  sur 
in  surname  sir,  which  shows  an  ignorance  of  its  true 
derivation,  which  is  from  the  Latin. 

367.  There  is  in  Greek  a  mood,  that  is  called  the 

16 


182  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

optative  mood  :  In  nearly  every  professedly  classical 
school,  the  word  "  optative"  is  pronounced  with  the 
accent  on  the  second  syllable,  instead  of  on  the 
first;  ask  the  teachers  why  this  is  so,  and  the  only 
reply  you  will  receive  will  be  a  stare  of  amazement 
at  your  question.  If  we  place  the  accent  on  the 
second  syllable  of  ''optative"  we  should,  to  be  con- 
sistent, place  the  accent  on  the  last  syllable  but  one 
in  nominative,  accusative,  vocative,  ablative,  impera- 
tive, and  indicative. 

368.  His  mamma  sent  him  to  a  preparatory  school : 
mamma  is  often  written  with  one  m  only,  which  is 
not,  as  may  at  first  be  supposed,  in  imitation  of  the 
French    \maman\,  but    in   sheer  ignorance.      The 
word  is  pure  Greek. 

369.  Active  verbs  often  take  a  neuter  sense :  as, 
The  house  is  building :  here,  is  building  is  used  in 
a  neuter  signification,  because  it  has  no  object  after 
it.     By  this  rule  are  explained  such  sentences  as, 
Application  is  wanting,    The    Grammar  is  print- 
ing, &c, 

370.  He  attavkted  me  without  the  slightest  pro- 
vocation :  say,  attacked. 

371.  You  was  very  duberous  about  it :  say,  you 
were  very  dubious  &c. 

372.  I  met  him    quite    pcrmiscous :    say,   quite 
accidentally. 

373.  I  saw  him  somewheres  in  the    city  :  say 
somewhere.     N.B.  Nowhere,   everywhere,  and    any- 
wheres,  are    also  very  frequently  heard   in   New 
York. 

374.  He  is  still  a  batcheldor :  say,  lacJielor. 


MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE.  183 

375.  His  language  was  quite  blasphemous:  be- 
ware of  placing  the  accent  on  phe  in  blasphemous. 
A  very  common  mistake,  and  by  no  means  confined 
to  the  uneducated.     Place  the  accent  on  the  sylla- 
ble bias. 

376.  I  called  on  him  every  day  in  the  week  suc- 
cessfully ;  very  common,  but  very  incorrect;  say, 
successively. 

377.  He  is  at  home  for  the  vocation  :  say,  vacation. 

378.  I  fear  I  shall  discommode  you :  say,  incom- 
mode. 

379.  I  can  do  it  equally  as  well  as  he :  leave  out 
equally ',  which  is  altogether  superfluous. 

380.  We  could  not  forbear  from  doing  it :  leave 
out  from  which  is  unnecessary. 

381.  He  was  totally  dependent  of  his  father  :  say, 
dependent  on  his  father.  t 

382.  They  accused  him  for  neglecting  his  duty : 
say,  of  neglecting  &c. 

383.  They  have  a  great  resemblance  with  each 
other  :  say,  to  each  other. 

384.  I  entirely  dissent  with  him;  say,  from  him. 

385.  He  was  made    much  on  at   Boston :    say, 
made  much  0/*&c. 

386.  He  is  a  man,  on  whom   you  can  confide  : 
say,  in  whom  &c. 

387.  Tm  thinking  he  will  soon    arrive :  say,    1 
think  &c. 

388.  He  was  obliged  to  fly  the  country :  say,  flee 
the  country.     A  very  common  mistake. 

389.  The    snuffers    wants   mending :    say,    want 
mending. 


184  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

390.  His  conduct  admits   of  no  apology :  leave 
out  of,  which  is  quite  unnecessary. 

391.  A  gent  has  been  here,  inquiring  for  you  :  a 
detestable,   but  very  common  expression :    say,  a 
gentleman  &c.  if£ 

392.  That  was  all  along  of  you  :  say,  That  was 
all  your  fault. 

393.  You  have  no  call  to  be  vexed  with  me  :  say, 
no  occasion  &c. 

394.  I  dorit  know  nothing  about  it :  a  very  com- 
mon mistake  :  leave  out  don't. 

395.  "  Bred  and  born"  should  be,   "  Born  and 
bred.n 

396.  "If  I   am  not  mistaken,"   should  be,  "  If  I 
mistake  not." 

397.  You  are  mistaken"  should  be,  "You  mis- 
take" , 

398.  "I  liad   rather  not,"  should  be,    "  I  would 
rather  not." 

399.  "  I  had  better  go,"  should  be,  "  It  were  letter 
that  1  should  go." 

400.  " Let  you  and  I"  should  be,  "  Let  you  and 
me" 

401.  "Let  them  and  we"  should  be,  "Let  them 
and  us" 

402.  "  He  is  a  very  rising  man,"  should  be,  "  He 
is  rising  rapidly." 

403.  "Apartments  to  let"    should  be,  "Apart- 
ments to  be  let." 

404.  "  No  less  than  ten  persons,"  should  be,  "No 
fewer  than  ten  persons." — Less  must  be  applied  to 


MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE.  185 

quantity,  as,   "  No  less  than  ten   dollars." — Fewer 
must  be  applied  to  persons  and  things. 

405.  "I  never  speak  whenever  I  can  help   it," 
should  be,  *'  I  never  speak  when  I  can  help  it." 

406.  "  Before  I  do  that,  I  must  first  be   paid/7 
should  be,  "  Before  I  do  that  I  must  be  paid." 

407.  "  To  return  lack"  should  be,  "  To  return!' 

408.  "  They  retreated  £ae&,"sliould  be,  "  They  re- 
treated" 

409.  "  To  get  over  an  illness,  should  be,  "  To  sur- 
vive" or.  ''To  recover  from  an  illness." 

410.  "  To  get  over  a  person,"  should  be, lt  To  per- 
suade a  person." 

411.  "  To  get  over  a  fact,"  should  be,  "  To  deny" 
or  "  refute"  it. 

412.  "  The  tJien  President,"    should   be,    "  The 
President  of  that  day"  or  "  The  Sixth  President." 

413.  The  then  Mrs.  Madison,"  should  be,  "  The 
Mrs.  Madison  then  living." 

414.  "  For  ought  I  know,"  should  be  "  For  aught 
I  know."     Aught  means  anything ;  ought  implies 
obligation. 

415.  "  As  far  as  I  know,"  should  be,  "  So  far  as 
I  know."    As  far  as  expresses  distance. 

416.  "  He  lays  on  the  sofa,"  should  be,  "  He  lies 
on  the  sofa." 

417.  "A  couple  of  Dollars,"  should  be  "  Two  dol- 
lars,"— Couple  means  union,  as,  a  married  couple. 

418.  "  They  are    united    together"    should    be, 
"They  are  united." 

419.  "  He  speaks  slow,"  should  be,  "  He  speaks 
dowfy." 


186  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

420.  "  She  is  so  muchiliQ  lady,"  should  be,  "She 
is  very  ladylike.1' 

421.  "  He  is  noways  in  fault."  should  he  "  He  is 
nowise  in  fault." 

422.  "  He  is  like  to  he,"  should  be,  "  He  is  likely 
to  be." 

423.  "  All  over  the  land,'7  should  be,  "  Over  all 
the  land." 

424.  "  Whenever  I  sing,  I  always  am  applauded," 
should  be,  "  Whenever  I  sing,  I  am  applauded." 

425.  "  I  am  stout  in  comparison  to  you,"  should 
be,  "  I  am  stout  in  comparison  with  you." 

426.  "  At  best,"  should  be,  "  At  the  best." 

427.  "  For  to  give,"  should  be,  "  To  give." 

428.  At  worst's,"  should  be,  "At  the  worst." 

429.  "  The  dinner  was  all  eat  up"  should   be, 
"  the  dinner  was  all  eaten" 

430.  '•  I  cat  heartily,"  should  be,  "  I  ate  heartily." 

431.  "  As  I  take  it,"  should  be,  "  As  I  see  it,"  or 
"  understand  it." 

432.  "  I  shall  fall  down,"  should  be, "  I  shall  fall" 

433.  "  It  fell  on  the  floor,"  should  be,  "  It  fell  to 
the  floor." 

434.  "  He  again  repeated  it,  should  be,  "  He  re- 
peated it." 

435.  "  His    conduct    was    approved   of  by   all," 
should  be,  "  His  conduct  was  approved  by  all." 

436.  "  To  enter  in"  should  be,  "  To  enter" 

437.  "  I  enjoy  bad  health,"  should  be,  "  I  suffer 
from  illness/7  or,  "  I  am  not  in  health.77 

438.  "  This  two  days,77  should  be,  "  These  two 
days." 


MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE.  187 

439.  "  Do  you  mean  to  come  ?"  should  be,  "  Do 
you  intend  to  come  V 

440.  "  Each  of  them  are"  should  be,  "Each  of 
them  is"     Each  means  one  and  the  other  of  two. 

441.  "  Either  of  the  three"  should  be,  "  Any  of 
the  three."     Either  means  one   or   the    other    of 
two. 

442.  "  Neither   one    or   the    other,'7    should   be, 
"  Neither  one  nor  the  other." — Neither  (not  either) 
means  not  the  one  nor  the  other  of  two. 

443.  "  I  am  not  so  rich  as  him"  should  be,  "  I 
am  not  so  rich  as  he" 

444.  "  Better  nor  that,"  should  be,  "  Better  than 
that." 

445.  "  Bad  Grammar"  should  be,  "  Bad  or  un- 
grammatical  English." 

446.  "  Give  me  both  of  them  boohs"  should  be, 
"  Give  me  both  of  those  books." 

447.  "  They  both  met,"  should  be,  "  They  met." 

448.  "  They    conversed     together"    should     be, 
They  conversed" 

449.  •'  To  lift  up,"  should  be,  "  To  lift." 

450.  "  He  walked  further  than  you,"  should  be, 
"  He  walked  farther  than  you.": — Farther  must  be 
applied  to  distance,  further  to  quantity,  as  "  Further 
funds  are  wanted." 

451.  "  From  hence,"  $iouldbe,  "  Hence" 

452.  "  From  thence,"  should  be,  "  Thence." 

453.  "  I  said  so  over  again"  should  be,  "  I  re- 
peated it." 

454.  "  From  here  to  there,"   should  be,  "  From 
this  place  to  that." 


188  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

455.  "  No  sooner   but"   should  be,  "  Xo   sooner 
than* 

456.  "  No  other  lut?  should  be,  "  No  other  than" 

457.  "  The  balloon  ascended  up"  should  be,  "  The 
balloon  ascended" 

458.  The  hen  is  setting"  should  be,  "  The  hen  is 
sitting" 

459.  "  For  you  and  I"  should  be,  "  For  you  and 
me.     The  same  with  all  prepositions. 

460.  "  A  summer's  morning,"  should  be,  "  A  sum- 
mer morning.'7 

461.  "  My  clothes  have  got  too  small,  or  too  short 
for  me,"  should  be,  "  I  have  become  too  stout  or 
too  tall  for  my  clothes." 

462.  "  It  is  equally  the  same,"  should  be,  "  It  is 
the  same." 

563.  "  A  most  perfect  poem,"  should  be,  "  A  per- 
fect poem."  Perfect,  supreme,  complete,  brief,  full, 
empty,  true,  false,  do  not  admit  of  comparison. 

464.  Avoid  using  unmeaning  or  vulgar  phrases  in 
speaking,  as,   "  You  don't  say  so  ?"  u  Don't    you 
know?"    "Don't  you  see?"     "You  know,"  "  You 
see,"  "  So  you  see,"  &c. 

465.  "  Is  Mr.   Smith  in  ?"  should  be,   "  Is   Mr. 
Smith  within  ?" 

466.  "  The  other  one,"  should  be  "  The  other." 

467.  "  Another  one"  should  be,  "  Another." 

468.  "  Two  spoonsful"  should  be,  "  Two  spoon- 
fuls." 

469.  •'  Every  one  of  them  are,"  should  be,  "  Ev- 
ery one  of  them  is" — Every  refers  to  any  one  of  a 
number  more  than  two. 


MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE.  189 

470.  "  As  soon  as  ever"  should  be,  "As  soon  as." 

471.  "  You  will  some  day  be  sorry,"  should  be, 
"You  will  one  day  be  sorry." 

472.  "  Direct  to  me,"  should  be,  "  Address  to  me." 

473.  "  The  very  best,"  should  be,  "  The  best." 

474.  "  The  very  worst,"  should  be,  "  The  worst." 

475.  "  From  now,"  should  be,  "  From  this  time" 

476.  "  I  differ  with  him,"  should  be,  "  I  differ 
from  him." 

477.  "  Therefore,  I  thought  it   proper  to   write 
you,"  should  be,  "  Therefore  I   think  it  proper  to 
write  to  you." 

478.  "  I  wished  to  have  written,  should  be,  "  I 
wished  to  write" 

479.  «  Who  is  there  ?  Me."     The  answer  should 
be,  "  I." 

480.  "Whom    do    you   speak   to?"    the   answer 
should  be,  "  Him." 

481.  "  There's  thirty,"  should  be,    "  There  are 
thirty." 

482.  "  The  best  of  the  two,"  should  be,  "  The  let- 
ter of  the  two." 

483.  "  More  happier"  should  be,  "  Happier,"  or 
"  More  happy." 

484.  "  Subject  matter"  should  be,  "  The  subject.'7 

485.  "  He  was  killed  by  a  cannon  ball,"  should 
be,  "  He  was  killed  with  a  cannon  ball." — The  gun 
was  fired  by  a  man. 

486.  "  Six  weeks  back"  should  be  "  Six  weeks 
ago,  or  since" 

487.  "  Ten  foot  high,"    should   be,    "  Ten  feet 
high." 


190  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

488.  "  Every  now  and  then"  should  be,  "  Often" 
or,  "frequently" 

489.  "  Who  finds  him  in   money  ?"   should   be, 
"  Who  finds  him  money  ?" 

490.  "  The  two  first,"  should  be,  "  Thejirst  two:9 

491.  "  The  two  last  should  be,  "  The  last  two  " 

492.  «  Thejirst  of  all,"  should  be,  "  The  first:1 

493.  "  The  last  of  all ,"  should  be,  "  The  last." 

494.  "  Be  that  as  it  will,"  should  be,  "  Be  that  as 
it  may." 

495.  "His  health  was  drank"  should  be,  "His 
health  was  drunk." 

496.  "  My    every   hope/'    should    be,    "  All   my 
Jiopcs" 

497.  "  Since  when"  should  be, "  Since  which  time:1 

498.  "  He  put  it  in  his  pocket,"  should  be,  "  He 
put  it  into  his  pocket." 

499.  "  Since  then"  should  be,  "  Since  that  time.11 

500.  "  He  has  got  money,"  should  be,  "  He  has 
money." 

501.  "  Between  you  and  J,"  should  be,  "  Between 
you  and  me.11 

502.  "  Who  should  I   see  ?"  should  be,  "  Whom 
should  I  see  ?" 

503.  "  Seldom  or  ever,"  should  be,  "  Seldom  if 
ever,"  or  "  Seldom  or  never.11 

504.  "  The  latter  end,"  should  be,  "  The  end.11 

505.  "  Will  you  set  down,"  should  be,  "  Will  you 
sit  down  V1 

506.  "  I  set  down  ?"  should  be,  "  I  sat  down." 

507.  "  That  adjust,"  should  be,  "  That  is  not 
just." 


MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE.  191 

508.  "  I  saw   it   in  here"  should  be,  "  I  saw  it 
here." 

509.  "  There  was  a  quantity  of  people,"  should 
be,  "  There  was  a  number  of  people." 

510.  "  For  good  and  all?  should  be,  "  For  ever'1 

511.  "  It  is  above  a  month  since,"  should  be,  "  It 
is  more  than  a  month  since." 

512.  "  He  is  a  superior  man,"  should  be,  "  He  is 
superior  to  most  men." 

513.  "  He  lives  at  New  York,"  should  be,  "  He 
lives  in  New  York."     At  should  only  be  applied  to 
small  towns. 

514.  "  To    restore  back,"     should   be,   "  To   re- 
store" 

515.  "  I  have  no  right  to  pay  this  bill,"  should 
be,  "  I  am  not  bound  to  pay  this  bill." 

516.  "  Nothing  on  it"  should  be,  "  Nothing  of  it" 

517.  '*  He  need  not  do  it,"  should  be,  "  He  needs 
not  to  do  it." 

518.  "  It  has  began,"  should  be,  "  It  has  begun? 

519.  "You  are  older  than  me"  should  be,  "  You 
are  older  than  7." 

520.  "I  am  taller  than  her"  should  be,  "  I  am 
taller  than  she." 

521.  "  I  bet  you,"  should  be,  "  I  will,  or  I  would 
make  a  bet  with  you." 

522.  "  I  attackted  him,"  should  be  "  I  attacked 
him." 

523  "  I  am  coming  to  your  house,"  should  be,  "  I 
am  going  to  your  house." 

524.  Nothing  is  more  objectionable  than  the  pre- 
fixture  of  the  vowel  a  before  words,  as  they  occur 


192  MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE. 

in  the  following  :  "  I  am  a  thinking  he  won't  pay 
me,"  or  "  He  is  a  writing  to  her." 

525.  How  base  is  the  corruption  of  "  his'n"  for 
"his   own,"    and   " her'n,"   for   "her    own,"    and 
"your'n,"  for  yours"  or  "  your  own." 

526.  "  To-morrow    is  Washington's   birth   day," 
should  be,  "  To-morrow  will  be  Washington's  birth 
day."     It  is  to  be  supposed  that  "to-morrow"  has 
not   arrived  at  the  time  of  speaking ;    hence  the 
incorrectness.      The  same  with  "  Next  Monday  is 
the  10th,  ain't  it  ?"  should  be,  "  Monday  next  will 
be  the  10th,  will  it  not  ?" 

527.  One  great  error  in  pronunciation,  is  the  fre- 
quent neglect  in  sounding  the  letter  g,  in  words 
ending  with   that  letter,  as  in  "  Mornin"  "  Morn- 
ing."     This  applies  to  all  words  ending  "  ing19 

528.  "  I  throwed  a  stone,"  should  be,"  "  I  threw 
a  stone." 

529.  "I  suspicioned  him,"  should  be, "  I  suspected 
him." 

530.  "  I  meant  to  have  called  on  you,  should  be, 
"  I  intended  calling  on  you." 

531.  "  I  seen  her,7'  should  be,  "  I  saw  her." 

532.  "  Go  over  the  bridge,"  should  be,  "  Go  across 
the  bridge." 

533.  "  Come  here,  should  be,  "  Come  hither." 

534.  "  I  was   some  distance  from  home,"  should 
be,  '*  I  was  at  some  distance  from  home." 

535.  "  He  lives  opposite  the  park,"  should  be,. 
"He  lives  opposite  to  the  park." 

536.  "  I  knew  him  some  six  years  ago,"  should 
be,  "  I  knew  him  six  years  ago." 


MISTAKES    OF    DAILY    OCCURRENCE.  193 

537.  "  He  belongs  to  the  Mechanics1  Institution,'7 
should  be,  "  He  is  a  member  of  the  Mechanics1  In- 
stitution." 

538.  "  Where  do  you  come  from  ?"  should  be, 
"  Whence  do  you  come  ?" 

539.  "  For  suck  another  book,7'  should  be,  "  For 
another  such  book/' 

540.  "  They  mutually  loved  each  other"  should 
be,  "  They  loved  eacli  other.11 

541.  "  I  ay'nt."  should  be,  "  1  am  not.ir 

542.  "  I  am  up  to  you11  should  be,  "  I  understand 
you." 


22.— BHETOBICAL  COMPOSITIOK. 

HHETORIC  and  oratory  have  the  same  meaning 
they  signify  the  art  of  speaking  well  upon  a  subject 
in  order  to  persuade.     Rhetoric  is  an  art  comprised 
in  certain  rules,  which  are  adapted  to  render  speak- 
ing successful  in  accomplishing  its  purposes. 

The  first  thing  to  he  observed  by  an  orator  is  to 
speak  with  truth  and  propriety ;  the  second  is  to 
adopt  due  method  in  the  arrangement  of  his  argu- 
ments ;  the  third  is  the  embellishment  of  his  subject 
with  the  beauties  of  language  ;  and  the  fourth  is 
the  degree  of  copiousness  which  shall  fully  express 
what  is  best  suited  to  his  purpose. 

Oratory  is  comprised  in  four  divisions,  viz. :  In- 
vention, Disposition,  Elocution,  and  Pronunciation. 

Invention  is  the  discovery  of  sufh  arguments  as 
are  adapted  to  prove  or  illustrate  the  subject;  to 
conciliate  the  favor  and  engage  the  passions  of  an 
audience. 

An  argument  is  that  which  presents  reasons  to 
convince  the  mind,  and  induce  belief  of  what  was 
before  doubted  or  disbelieved.  Thus,  if  the  purpose 
of  a  speaker  is  to  prove  temperance  to  be  beneficial 
to  men,  the  proper  mode  is  to  show  its  good  effects 
on  health  and  economy ;  for  if  it  promotes  these  it 
is  a  personal  benefit,  as  all  men  will  admit  that 
health  and  economy  are  beneficial.  Or,  we  may 
prove  the  same  point  by  contrasting  the  effects  of 
temperance  with  those  of  intemperance,  and  sliow- 

(194) 


RHETORICAL    COMPOSITION.  195 

ing  that  intemperance  impairs  health  and  wastes 
property,  which  are  evil  effects.  In  all  cases  of 
reasoning,  we  are  to  proceed  on  known  facts,  or  on 
principles  which  are  admitted  or  undeniable,  such 
as  the  laws  of  nature ;  mathematical  principles ;  or 
on  events  which  are  known ;  or  we  are  to  proceed 
on  probabilities,  in  which  case  the  strength  of  argu- 
ments and  their  tendency  to  convince,  will  depend 
on  the  strength  of  the  evidence ;  or,  we  are  to  pro- 
ceed on  testimony,  which  is  the  declaration  of  wit- 
nesses In  the  latter  case,  we  are  to  consider  the 
number  and  character  of  the  witnesses,  the  nature 
of  their  testimony,  and  the  various  circumstances 
which  may  increase  or  lessen  their  credibility. 

In  reasoning  on  the  established  laws  of  nature, 
as  in  mathematics,  if  the  process  is  correct  the 
result  is  certain.  But  in  reasoning  on  probabilities 
or  human  testimony  we  may  be  deceived  or  misled, 
and  by  this  means  we  may.arrive  at  a  wrong  con- 
clusion. Hence  it  sometimes  happens  that  men 
addicted  to  mathematical  reasoning,  are  apt  to  be 
led  to  false  conclusions,  when  they  reason  on  the 
interest,  motives  and  passions  of  men,  or  on  the 
ordinary  occurrences  of  life. 

In  all  our  reasonings  it  is  important  to  have 
clear  ideas  of  the  subject,  and  to  use  words  of  defi- 
nite signification.  All  ambiguous  words,  which 
admit  of  two  or  more  senses,  should  be  carefully 
avoided.  In  every  step  of  reasoning,  the  state- 
ments should  be  clear  and  precise,  and  every  point 
fully  established. 

Disposition. — Disposition  is  the  manner  of  ar~ 


196  RHETORICAL    COMPOSITION. 

ranging  the  materials  of  a  discourse.  This  should 
be  so  methodical  that  every  part  should  succeed 
that  on  which  it  depends  for  support ;  or,  it  should 
be  the  order  in  which  arguments  follow  each  other 
in  a  train  of  reasoning.  Young  clergymen  and 
pleaders  at  the  bar,  and  indeed  all  persons  whose 
pursuits  call  for  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  art 
of  oratory,  will  find  the  following  arrangement  of 
the  parts  of  a  discourse  to  be  both  lucid  and  effect- 
ive. In  politics,  this  arrangement  counts  among  its 
followers  such  men  as  Sheridan,  Pitt,  Fox,  Brough- 
am, Patrick  Henry,  Alexander  Hamilton,  Daniel 
Webster,  John  0.  Calhoun,  Henry  Clay,  Charles 
Sumner ;  in  law,  Francis  North,  Lord  Bacon,  Wm. 
C.  Preston,  Lewis  Cass,  Wm.  H.  Seward,  Rufus 
Choate,  Millard  Fillmore,  Levi  Woodbury ;  in  divin- 
ity, John  Knox,  Hugh  Blair,  Thomas  Chalmers, 
Jonathan  Edwards,  John  M.  Mason,  Stephen  Olin, 
John  Summerfield,  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  Stephen 
H.  Tyng,  Gardiner  Spring.  It  is  termed  the  Cice- 
ronian arrangement,  and  is  comprised  of  six  parts, 
which  are  as  folio wst  1.  Introduction  ;  2.  Narra- 
tion ;  3.  Proposition ;  4.  Confirmation ;  5.  Confu- 
tation ;  6.  Conclusion. 

The  introduction  is  designed  to  prepare  the  minds 
of  hearers  for  a  suitable  reception  of  the  parts  which 
are  to  follow,  It  should  also  give  some  general 
account  of  the  subject  of  the  discourse.  A  general 
view  of  the  subject  proposed,  and  of  its  design, 
enables  the  hearer  the  better  to  connect  and  under- 
stand the  several  parts  as  they  succeed  each  other. 

Narration  is  the  recital  of  something  done,  in  the 


RHETORICAL    COMPOSITION.  197 

order  and  manner  in  which  it  was  done;  such  as 
the  cause,  manner,  time,  place,  and  consequences 
of  an  action  or  event,  with  the  character  and  cir- 
cumstances of  the  persons  concerned.  This  part  of 
a  discourse  is  often  necessary,  to  render  it  more 
intelligible  to  the  hearers.  The  narration  should 
be  as  brief  as  the  questions  contained  in  the  dis- 
course will  admit ;  whatever  is  necessary  to  eluci- 
date the  subject  should  be  stated;  but  all  matter 
foreign  to  the  subject  should  be  omitted.  All  the 
statements  should  be  perspicuous,  probable,  and  as 
entertaining  as  the  subject  will  admit. 

The  proposition  of  a  regular  discourse  is  a  clear, 
distinct  statement  of  the  subject,  and  the  main 
points  to  be  proved.  In  this  part  of  an  oration  or 
discourse,  it  is  often  necessary  to  divide  the  subject 
into  distinct  heads;  each  of  which  is  to  be  sepa- 
rately considered.  This  division  often  assists  the 
hearer  to  understand  and  recollect  the  several 
points  stated,  and  the  arguments  applicable  to 
each. 

Confirmation. — Confirmation  is  that  part  of  a 
discourse  which  furnishes  proof,  authority,  and  sup- 
port to  a  cause.  This  includes  the  arguments,  the 
evidence,  and  the  reasoning,  which  are  intended 
to  sustain  the  cause.  In  this  part,  the  reasoning 
may  often  be  conducted  by  syllogisms.  Thus,  to 
demonstrate  that  the  world  is  under  the  direction 
of  a  wise  governor,  we  may  reason  thus  :  *  Things 
which  are  directed  by  wisdom  are  better  governed 
than  those  which  are  not.  Nothing  can  be  better 
governed  than  the  Solar  system.  Hence  we  infer 
17* 


198  RHETORICAL    COMPOSITION. 

that  the  Solar  system  is  under  the  direction  of  a 
wise  governor."  This  is  the  synthetic  mode  of 
reasoning. 

The  analytic  method  of  reasoning  is  different.  In 
this,  the  speaker  proceeds  step  by  step  till  he  brings 
his  hearers  to  the  intended  conclusion.  Thus,  for 
example,  to  prove  the  being  of  a  God,  or  Intelligent 
Author  of  all  things,  he  may  reason  thus  :  "  Every- 
thing we  see  in  the  world  had  a  beginning;  what- 
ever had  a  beginning  must  have  had  a  prior  cause, 
for  it  is  clear  that  no  effect  exists  without  a  cause ; 
hence  we  infer  that  the  world  and  all  that  we  see 
of  creation,  must  have  had  a  supreme  cause.  From 
the  order  and  harmony  of  the  universe,  we  further 
infer  that  the  Supreme  Cause  is  an  intelligent  and 
wise  Being,  as  order  cannot  proceed  from  accident 
or  ignorance." 

Instead  of  a  complete  syllogism,  orators  often 
use  an  entliymeme,  which  is  an  imperfect  syllogism, 
consisting  of  two  parts,  one  of  the  premises  of  a 
complete  syllogism,  and  the  conclusion.  For  ex- 
ample :  "  Our  duty  requires  that  we  should  love 
what  is  most  excellent.  Therefore,  duty  requires 
that  we  should  love  God."  Here  the  second  or 
minor  proposition  is  omitted,  as  being  too  obvious 
to  need  recital.  It  would  read  thus  :  "  God  is  most 
excellent.  Therefore  it  is  our  duty  to  love  Him." 

Confutation  is  the  disproving  of  the  reasoning  of 
an  opposite  party.  This  is  done  by  arguments  and 
reasoning,  as  in  the  other  cases,  or  by  contradiction. 
Contradiction,  however,  cannot  avail,  unless  when 
facts  are  too  obvious  to  be  denied.  Sometimes  an  ad- 


RHETORICAL    COMPOSITION  199 

versary  may  be  confuted  by  directing  liis  own  reas- 
oning against  himself;  sometimes  by  turning  against 
him  what  he  has  admitted;  and  sometimes  by  find- 
ing and  presenting  to  view  a  defect  in  reasoning. 
In  some  cases,  an  orator  may  admit  an  adversary's 
argument,  but  deny  its  validity  or  its  application  to 
the  question. 

The  conclusion  of  a  discourse  may  consist  of  two 
parts,  namely  :  recapitulation,  and  an  address  to  the 
passions  of  the  hearers.  Eecapitulation  is  a  sum- 
mary of  all  the  material  arguments  in  a  discourse, 
intended  to  refresh  the  memory,  and,  by  bringing 
them  into  a  narrow  compass,  present  them  in  a 
stronger  light.  Such  a  summary,  well-conducted,  has 
often  a  very  impressive  effect.  In  addressing  the 
passions,  the  orator  must  direct  his  efforts  to  excite 
.  such  feelings  as  will  operate  in  favor  of  his  arguments. 

The  conclusion  of  Mr.  Ames's  speech  in  Congress, 
on  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Great  Britain,  affords  a 
fine  example  of  an  address  to  the  sympathy  of  his 
hearers.  He  was  in  feeble  health,  and  after  a  most 
brilliant  display  of  eloquence,  he  closed  with  the 
following  words :  "  I  have,  perhaps,  as  little  per- 
sonal interest  in  the  event  as  any  one  here.  There 
is,  I  believe,  no  member  who  will  not  think  his 
chance  to  be  a  witness  of  the  consequences  greater 
than  mine.  If,  however,  the  vote  should  pass  to 
reject  the  treaty,  and  a  spirit  should  rise,  as  it  will, 
with  the  public  disorders,  to  make  confusion  worse 
confounded,  even  I,  slender  and  almost  broken  as 
my  hold  upon  life  is,  may  outlive  the  government 
and  constitution  of  my  country." 


23.-COMPOSITION  FOR  THE  PRESS. 

DAILY  and  weekly  newspapers  are  termed  The 
Press ;  the  editors  of  these  are  called  members  of 
the  press.  In  every  well-regulated  daily  newspa- 
per office  each  department  has  one  or  more  editors, 
some  of  whom  are  styled  reporters.  The  usual  de- 
partments are  as  follows,  namely :  The  political  ; 
commercial;  agricultural;  literary;  home;  foreign; 
financial;  shipping;  city  news;  police;  theatrical; 
musical ;  law  ;  general  news.  Those  having  charge 
of  the  shipping,  city  news,  police,  and  law  depart- 
ments, are  commonly  termed  reporters.  In  addition 
to  these,  there  are  usually  market,  hotel,  and  other 
reporters.  The  editor  of  the  political  department 
is  called  the  political  editor  of  the  paper ;  the  editor 
of  the  literary  or  review  department,  the  literary 
editor,  &c.,  &c. 

In  preparing  matter  for  the  daily  press,  the  fol- 
lowing points  should  be  carefully  borne  in  mind, 
namely  :  1.  Precision  of  subject ;  2.  Precision  of 
thought ;  3.  Precision  of  expression.  To  these 
must  be  added,  1.  Brevity;  2.  Brevity;  3.  Brev- 
ity. A  due  observance  of  these  points  will  event- 
ually lead  to  marked  proficiency,  and  enable  the 
writer  to  command  a  respectable  position  in  journal- 
ism. 

A  person  desirous  of  becoming  a  newspaper  writer 
should  select  some  particular  line.  General  writers, 
like  general  actors,  rarely  attain  to  competence  or 

(200) 


COMPOSITION    FOR    THE    PRESS.  201 

fame.  The  reason  is  obvious.  Though  they  may 
be  passable  In  all  departments,  they  are  remark- 
able in  none.  The  path  to  eminence  and  wealth 
is  through  specialities.  Placide,  the  actor,  never 
attracted  attention  till  he  devoted  himself  exclu- 
sively to  the  impersonation  of  old  men ;  Power  suc- 
ceeded only  when  he  relinquished  general  parts, 
and  confined  his  personations  to  those  of  Irishmen. 
Douglas  Jerrold  could  scarcely  earn  a  living  as  a 
miscellaneous  writer ;  but  on  turning  his  attention 
to  satire,  his  pen  was  kept  constantly  employed. 
Cooper's  fame  suffered  when  he  turned  aside  from 
forest  to  social  life.  Bryant  as  a  poet  is  deservedly 
eminent ;  but  Bryant  as  a  political  and  miscellaneous 
editor  attracts  no  notice.  Horace  Greeley  as  a  gen- 
eral writer  could  not  earn  the  wages  of  a  journey- 
man printer  ;  Horace  Greeley  as  a  political  writer 
has  risen  to  fame  and  fortune.  James  Gordon  Ben- 
nett, when  aftniscellaneous  writer,  was  often  thank- 
ful for  an  invitation  to  a  dinner;  James  Gordon 
Bennett's  reputation  as  a  newspaper  engineer  is 
world-wide.  Bird,  the  novelist,  sunk  into  obscur- 
ity when  he  became  an  editor.  Mr.  W.  Gilmore 
Simms  has  won  a  certain  degree  of  reputation,  by 
confining  his  literary  efforts  mainly  to  tales  of  the 
Revolution.  Lardner,  by  adhering  to  science,  has 
acquired  a  name  and  profit.  Wilson,  as  a  miscella- 
neous writer,  promised  to  find  his  way  into  what 
he  did  not  seek — oblivion;  as  " Christopher  North," 
critic,  his  fame  is  universal.  An  energetic  persist- 
ence in  a  certain  course  sooner  or  later  leads  to 
success.  The  reward  of  that  success  depends  upon 


202  COMPOSITION    FOR    THE    PRESS. 

the  profit  of  such  course.  There  are  courses  in  lit- 
erature that  yield  neither  fame  nor  money  ;  and  all 
who  labor  in  them  glean  nothing.  There  are  others 
that  yield  both,  in  proportion  to  the  energy  and  in- 
dustry with  which  the  latter  are  sought.  But  it 
should  be  always  remembered  by  the  struggler  that 
fame  and  profit  are  the  reward,  not  of  a  single  bold 
effort,  but  of  an  extended  series  of  triumphs.  Had 
Dickens  failed  to  follow  up  his  "Pickwick  Papers," 
his  would  have  been  only  a  temporary  fame ;  but 
having  followed  it  with  a  series  of  equally  superior 
productions,  his  reputation  will  live  for  centuries. 

A  person  desirous  of  entering  into  journalism 
should  carefully  educate  himself,  by  private  prac- 
tice, for  some  special  department  in  the  same.  He 
should  accustom  himself  to  ready  thought,  ready  de- 
cision, and  ready  expression.  This  can  be  attained, 
but  only  after  long  and  patient  practice.  Each  of 
his  private  attempts  should  be  writteruwith  as  much 
care  as  if  it  were  designed  for  immediate  publication, 
in  a  journal  whose  readers  are  all  critics.  This  course 
may  be  objected  to,  as  calling  for  the  exercise  of  too 
great  patience,  application,  and  study  ;  but  it  should 
be  remembered  that,  in  this  age  of  abundant  talent, 
eminence  in  any  one  literary  department  is  to  be 
won  only  by  unusual  effort.  He  who  is  unwilling 
to  make  such  effort  will  find  literature  a  thorny 
path.  In  this,  as  in  every  profession,  the  struggler 
must  look  to  find  hosts  of  able  and  energetic  com- 
petitors, of  established  fame  and  position,  in  every 
department,  each  and  all  of  whom  are  ready  to  con- 
test with  him  inch  by  inch  of  the  road  to  superior- 


COMPOSITION    FOR    THE    PRESS.  203 

ity.  But  let  him  not  be  disheartened.  Many  of 
these  men  are  not  true  to  themselves.  Dissipation, 
negligence,  unwillingness  to  manfully  face  the  se- 
vere demands  of  their  profession,  and  numerous 
other  causes,  are  constantly  thinning  their  number, 
and  making  room  for  others.  Let  the  straggler's 
motto  be,  "Press  on!"  Rivals  give  way,  in  time, 
to  competitors  more  determined  than  themselves. 
Of  a  hundred  runners  in  a  race,  only  a  few  hold  out 
to  the  end.  Perseverance  oftener  wins  than  loses. 
The  above  remarks  apply  with  equal  force  to 
writers  in  every  department  of  literature.  If  a  lit- 
erary aspirant  desires  to  become  a  novelist,  a  ro- 
mancist,  a  poet,  a  historian,  a  lexicographer,  an  es- 
sayist, a  memoirist;  a  literary,  dramatic,  musical,  or 
other  critic;  a  paragraphist ;  a  political,  commercial, 
agricultural,  scientific,  or  other  writer,  let  him  not 
damage  his  proficiency  in  that  line,  if  he  have  any, 
by  writing  anything  else,  even  for  amusement ;  let 
him  qualify  himself  for  his  chosen  speciality  alone. 
Any  departure,  no  matter  how  trifling,  from  his  ac- 
customed train  of  thought  and  expression,  takes 
him  into  another,  and  he  loses  just  so  much  of  the 
command  which  he  had  acquired  over  the  first  as 
he  has  obtained  in  the  second ;  and  a  return  to  his 
original  individuality  is  attended  with  considerable 
difficulty  and  loss  of  time  and  temper.  Independ- 
ently of  this,  a  writer  should  so  far  venerate  the 
dignity  of  his  profession  as  never  to  write  upon  any 
topic  with  which  he  is  not  legitimately  familiar.  A 
due  observance  of  this  rule  will  enable  every  literary 
man  to  do  himself  and  his  brethren  justice;  and  also 


204  COMPOSITION    FOR    THE    PRESS 

entitle  him  to  an  honorable  position  in  his  profes- 
sion. Writers  who  disregard  this  rule  generally 
pay  the  penalty  of  its  non-observance  by  the  inter- 
ruption which  it  rarely  fails  to  make  to  their  pro- 
gress. Writers  who  complacently  assert  that  they 
can  turn  from  one  line  to  another  without  mental 
disturbance  or  inconvenience,  are  mainly  persons 
of  little  or  no  reputation.  A  brilliant  paragraphist 
is  seldom  or  ever  readable  as  a  tale  writer ;  and  after 
writing  a  tale,  his  next  few  paragraphs  are  general- 
ly wanting  in  brilliancy.  A  commercial  writer  may 
try  his  pen  at  a  poem ;  but  if  he  does,  the  chances 
are  that  his  poem  would  make  him  the  laughing- 
stock of  his  friends.  N.  P.  Willis  is  a  poet  of  sur- 
passing excellence ;  but  fancy  him  sitting  down  to 
write  an  article  on  commerce ! 


POLITICAL  "  EDITORIALS." 

THE  following  will  serve  to  convey  to  the  mind 
of  the  reader,  better  than  any  description,  an  idea 
of  a  vigorous  political  ''editorial.'*  The  style  is 
somewhat  impudent,  opinionative,  and  extravagant, 
but  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  fair  sample  of  popular 
newspaper  writing : 

THE  WAK  FEVER— CKAMPTON'S  KECALL 

England  and  the  United  States  are  the  only  two  great  nations  of  the 
earth  in  which  the  people  are  theoretically  the  ruling  powers,  and  where 
the  popular  will  may  impress  itself  directly  upon  the  genius  of  Govern- 
ment And  the  people  of  these  two  great  nations,  the  foremost  of  all  the 
earth  in  wealth,  intelligence  and  power,  live  in  terms  of  the  closest  inti- 
macy that  is  possible  with  two  distinct  nations.  They  speak  the  same 
language,  read  each  other's  books,  intermarry,  exchange  products,  borrow 
and  lend,  and  trust  each  other  to  sums  almost  beyond  computation.  They 
•visit  each  other  continually,  believe  in  each  other,  and,  in  all  the  relations 
of  human  beings,  cultivate  as  close  an  intimacy  as  two  people  can.  At  the 
very  thought  of  war  they  hold  up  their  hands  in  horror  ;  they  recoil  from 
the  possibility  of  shedding  each  other's  blood,  and  of  rending  the  bonds 
which  have  been  so  firmly  riveted  and  under  which  they  have  prospered 
so  long,  grown  so  mighty,  and  been  so  happy.  War,  to  such  people,  so 
closely  allied,  and  having  so  many  interests  in  common,  must  cause  unmit- 
igated confusion  and  suffering.  They  have  no  desire  to  humiliate  each 
other ;  they  know  too  well  each  other's  strength  to  have  any  desire  to  put 
it  to  the  test  of  an  actual  conflict :  and,  if  let  alone  and  permitted  to  have 
their  own  way,  there  never  would  be  war  between  them.  But  the  people 
of  these  two  countries  do  not,  in  fact,  hold  their  destinies  in  their  own 
hands ;  the  men  who  are  intrusted  for  a  time  with  the  direction  of  the 
machinery  of  Government  are  the  real  rulers,  and  by  their  bungling, 
their  imbecility,  their  carelessness,  or  their  personal  ambition,  they  may 
precipitate  the  two  nations  into  a  bloody  and  demoralizing  contest,  sore- 
ly against  the  wishes  of  the  people  themselves. 

An  irresolute  and  rash  Executive    on   the  one  side,  and  a  bungling 

incompetent  Ambassador  on  the  other,   whose  proclivity  to  mistakes  is 

marvellous  even  in  one  of  his  trade,  have  very  nearly  brought  the  two 

'people  into  a  position  where  war  may  be  unavoidable.    Were  it  not  for 

18 


206  POLITICAL    "  EDITORIALS. " 

the  absurdity  of  the  supposition  that  two  nations  like  England  and  the 
United  States  should  engage  in  a  bloody  conflict,  to  establish  no  princi- 
ple, to  avenge  no  wrongs,  to  secure  no  great  rights,  and  without  the 
existence  of  any  ill  feelings  even,  on  either  side,  merely  because  a 
bungling  diplomatic  agent  had  made  a  mistake,  or  misunderstood  the 
terms  of  a  treaty,  there  might  be  reasons  for  apprehending  a  suspension 
of  friendly  relations  between  the  two  countries. 

By  our  special  telegraphic  dispatch  from  Washington,  it  appears  that 
the  Asia,  which  arrived  yesterday,  bronght  the  long  anticipated  reply  from 
the  British  Government  refusing  to  recall  Mr.  CRAMPTON.  Of  course,  this 
leaves  no  choice  for  our  own  Government  but  to  dismiss  him ;  for  it  Is  not 
to  be  supposed  that  a  Minister  will  be  allowed  to  remain  at  his  post,  who 
is  so  objectionable  that  his  recall  has  been  demanded.  There  is  a  crisis  at 
hand ;  and  if  it  shall  load  to  the  substitution  of  an  English  minister  at 
Washington,  in  the  place  of  Mr.  CRAMPTON,  who  will  be  less  liable  to  mis- 
takes than  that  gentleman,  we  shall  have  quieter  times  hereafter.  Gen. 
WALKER'S  Government  recognized,  and  Mr.CRAMPTosr  dismissed,  we  may 
•veil  ask  "  what  next  ?"  and  not  be  obliged  to  wait  long  for  an  answer. 

The  annexed  is  in  the  same  style,  and  it  will  be 
found  worthy  of  examination  by  the  student.  The 
key  to  its  pungency  will  be  found  in  the  writer's 
free  use  of  expletives. 

THE  PALMEESTON  MINISTRY 

As  we  anticipated,  the  English  Parliament  has  scouted,  by  a  larger  ma- 
jority than  has  marked  a  party  division  since  the  days  of  PITT,  the  motion 
on  the  fall  of  Kara  of  the  Irish  orator  Mr.  WIIITESIDE,  who,  like  many  Irish 
orators  of  a  particular  class,  would  appear  to  be  a  mere  prurient  wind-bag, 
<;  all  sound  and  fury,  signifying  nothing."  It  was  generally  felt  that  the  mo- 
tion was  undertaken,  not  from  any  real  conviction  of  its  justice,  but  merely 
as  a  move  to  put  PALMERSTOX  out  and  the  Derby-Disraelites  in,  which  is 
the  ruling  principle  of  Mr.  DISRAELI'S  policy.  Probably  not  half  the  men 
who  voted,  including  the  mover  himself,  until  crammed  for  the  occasion, 
knew  where  Kars  was,  or  would  sacrifice  to  its  salvation  one  hour  of  the 
Treasury  bench.  Lord  PALMERSTON  was,  therefore,  sustained,  not  alone  by 
his  own  immediate  party,  and  the  Peelifes  and  the  Manchester  school 
who  hold  the  balance,  but  by  a  large  section  of  the  more  respectable  of  the 
Tory  Party,  who  consider  that  the  Premier  has  sustained  the  honor  of 
England,  and  will  not  sacrifice  to  the  adventitious  tactics  of  party  the  per- 
manent interests  of  the  State.  So  the  petard  burst  harmlessly,  or  at  least 
only  hoisted  those  who  had  given  it  the  start.  Many  of  the  more  hungry 
followers  of  Lord  DERBY  are  doubtless  weary  of  wandering  in  the  politi- 
cal wilderness,  and  are  perishincr  for  the  manna  of  office,  but  there  are 


NEWS    "  EDITORIALS."  207 

many  of  the  fine  old  Englishmen  who  care  little  who  is  in,  BO  that  the 
glory  of  England  is  maintained.  Lord  DEBBY,  too,  when  last  sent  for, 
was  unable  to  lay,  not  alone  a  dainty  dish,  but  any  dish  at  all,  before 
the  Queen.  And  he  has  not  since  acquired  any  additional  materials. 
Why  then  put  PALMEKSTON  out  ? 

The  following  is  the  usual  form  of  an  editorial : 

SUMMARY  OF  FOREIGN  NEWS. 

The  Royal  Mail  steamship  Asia,  Capt.  LOTT,  from  Liverpool,  arrived  at 
her  dock  early  yesterday  morning.  The  news  is  three  days  later  than 
that  received  by  the  Atlantic,  but  presents  no  feature  of  importance. 

The  official  report  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Peace  Congress  had  been 
published,  but  are  little  more  than  a  reproduction  of  the  treaty  and  pro- 
tocols already  made  known. 

It  appears  that  the  advance  copy  of  the  treaty  of  peace,  which  eventu- 
ally appeared  in  the  London  Daily  News,  was  hawked  about  among  the 
London  press,  but  not  one  of  those  "  enterprising"  papers  would  pay  for 
it  the  price  demanded  -1,000  francs,  about  $200 ! 

A  letter  from  Berlin  in  the  Bourse  Gazette  of  Vienna  says :  "  The  pro- 
posal made  by  England  to  capitalize  the  Sound  Dues,  and  to  extinguish 
the  capital  by  gradual  payments,  will  not  be  accepted  by  Denmark, 
which  has  addressed  a  circular  to  that  effect  to  its  agents  at  the  foreign 
courts  interested  in  the  question.  The  States  bordering  on  the  Baltic  have 
not  yet  replied  to  the  proposal  of  England.  The  negotiations  which  had 
commenced  at  Copenhagen,  and  were  interrupted  in  March  last,  will 
probably  be  resumed/' 

A  telegraphic  dispatch  from  Copenhagen,  of  the  27th  inst.,  states  that 
by  an  unexpected  turn  the  exclusive  Danish  party  presente  ,  in  the  sit- 
ting of  the  General  Diet  on  the  26th,  by  its  organ,  Bishop  MOUBAD,  a 
proposition  tending  to  revise  the  common  constitution  throughout. 

The  stations  to  which  French  Consuls  or  Consular  Agents  will  be  sent,  in 
the  Black  Sea,  are  said  to  be  Kertch,  Cherson,  Baktchissarai,  or  Siniphero- 
pol,  Nicolaieff,  and  Taganrog,  with,  as  before,  a  Consul  at  Odessa. 

The  Press  (T  Orient  announces  that  the  majority  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Eupatoria  are  emigrating  through  fear  of  being  compromised; 
and  similar  movements  are  taking  place  in  Abasia  and  in  Mingrclie. 

By  intelligence  from  Constantinople  under  date  of  21st,  it  would  appear 
that  discontent  prevailed  on  account  of  the  quarantine  of  forty  days  im- 
posed on  vessels  arriving  from  the  Russian  ports  of  the  Black  Sea. 

Baron  BRUNOW,  who  was  for  many  years  ambassador  to  England,  where 
lie  was  socially  very  popular,  had  arrived  in  London,  and  a  general  hope 
te  entertained  that  he  will  be  permit-ted  to  resume  his  old  post,  which  he 
vacated  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  war. 

Mr.  R.  M.  Fox  and  Mr.  BLACKETT,  both  members  of  the  British  Parlia 


208  PARAGRAPHING. 

ment,  are  dead.  The  one  was  member  for  Longford  in  Ireland,  the  other 
for  Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

Mr.  JOHN  BRIGHT,  M.  P.,  has  again  rel  apsed,  and  it  is  now  certain  that 
«.  long  period  of  repose  will  be  needed  before  he  is  able  to  appear  in  Par- 
liament again.  This  is  pleasant  forPALMERSTON,  whose  bitter  foe  he  was 
Mr.  BRIGHT  is  at  Malvern,  trying  the  cold-water  cure. 

On  last  Sunday  week,  a  day  of  general  thanksgiving  was  observed  in 
England.  The  illuminations  come  off  on  the  Queen's  birthday. 

Paragraphing  is  the  most  difficult  of  all  news- 
paper writing.  To  do  it  well,  requires  decided 
talent  and  continual  practice.  The  mere  writing, 
even  though  a  labor  of  love,  is  still  a  labor  which 
sooner  or  later  deprives  the  mind  of  its  elasticity, 
and  reduces  it  to  mental  servitude.  From  that  mo- 
ment, paragraphing  degenerates  into  exhausting 
drudgery.  Paragraphists  are  the  shortest-lived  of 
all  the  representatives  of  the  press.  The  following 
bear  the  impress  of  comparatively  fresh  pens  : 

CENTRAL  PARK  LANDS.— The  measures  taken  in  reference  to  the  opening 
of  Central  Park,  have  produced  quite  a  commotion  among  property -holders 
within  the  proposed  limits.  Some  complain  that  the  awards  made  them 
are  not  equal  to  what  in  justice  they  are  entitled ;  but  most  of  them,  doubt- 
less, could  truly  say  that  the  sums  named  fall  short  of  their  expectations. 
There  being  an  uncertainty  as  to  the  actual  period  when  the  work  of  "  laying 
out"  will  commence,  and  in  order  to  secure  to  the  city  all  the  revenue  avail- 
able from  this  source,  the  various  tenements  and  lands  on  the  new  Park 
grounds,  have  been  rented  as  far  as  practicable,  and  on  the  best  possible 
terms,  for  the  period  of  one  year,  from  the  first  of  the  present  month ;  the 
Corporation  reserving  the  right  to  enter  upon  possession  of  the  premises,  on 
giving  ninety  days'  notice.  A  large  number  of  these  houses  are  now  empty, 
the  former  occupants  having  preferred  to  move  at  once,  than  run  the  risk  of 
being  ousted  before  the  end  of  the  year.  The  present  number  of  tenants, 
is  about  180,  and  the  general  quality  of  the  houses,  and  the  present  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  land  in  that  section,  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact,  that 
more  than  130  pay  a  rent  not  exceeding  $40  per  year,  and  a  good  many 
not  more  than  $10.  The  amount  received  for  the  first  quarter  of  the  year 
is  some  $1,800.  It  is  probable  the  work  of  opening  the  Central  Park  will 
be  commenced  during  the  season  in  good  earnest,  and  the  reign  of  squatter 
sovereignty  in  that  locality  will  therefore  have  a  speedy  end. 


PARAGRAPHING.  209 

EFFECTS  OF  DISREGARDING  THE  MAI^TB  LAW. — Capt  Hodgkins,  of 
the  canal  boat  Europa,  at  Poplar  street  wharf,  went  on  board  about 
2  A.M.  on  Wednesday  morning,  in  a  state  of  intoxication,  and  after  setting 
the  cabin  on  fire  in  his  obliviousness,  returned  on  deck  and  went  to 
Bleep.  The  fire  spread,  and  horrible  to  relate,  burned  to  death  his  little 
sou  and  a  negro,  who  were  asleep  in  the  cabin ;  and  when  he  was  awak- 
ened by  the  police,  stumbled,  fell  overboard,  and  came  near  being 
drowned : 

"  Oh  thou  invisible  spirit  of  wine, 

Hadst  thou  no  other  name  to  be  known  by, 

Let  us  call  thee— devil !" 

THE  WEATHER  AND  THE  ANNIVERSARIES. — The  anniversaries  are 
over.  Our  streets  once  more  begin  to  assume  their  natural  aspect, 
and  profane  people  do  not  hesitate  to  assert  that  we  may  now  hope 
to  enjoy  an  agreeable  season.  Certainly  we  need  it.  It  has  been  the 
staple  of  many  an  honest  prayer  for  some  days.  Such  incessant  rain 
as  we  h;id  all  last  week  was  monotonous  enough — to  speak  it  mildly 
as  possible;  though  what  the  exodus  of  the  anniversary  folks  had 
to  do  with  the  pleasant  change  that  greeted  us  on  Sunday,  or  why  the  two 
ideas  should  be  so  associated  in  the  general  imagination,  we  cannot  see. 
Why  the  weather  should  be  expected  to  clear  up,  when  they  clear  out,  is 
not  so  clear  to  us;  but  as  there  is  always  some  occult  shadow  of  reason  in 
all  these  popular  notions,  we  yield  up  gracefully  our  distrust,  and  stand 
ready  to  praise  the  sunshine  the  moment  that  we  feel  sure  it  has  become 
permanent 

A  FLATTERING  OFFER. — We  see  that  Dr.  Kane  has  declined  Lady  Frank- 
lin's renewed  offer  to  take  the  command  of  an  expedition  about  to  be  sent 
out  by  her,  with  the  assistance  of  the  British  Government,  to  find,  if  pos- 
sible, the  remains  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  and  the  relics  of  his  ships.  The 
offer  was  a  most  flattering  one  for  our  distinguished  countryman,  every 
inducement  being  proposed  that  could  have  tempted  him  to  accept  it :  but 
he  finally  declined  it,  as  we  see  it  stated,  from  entire  inability  to  get  his  pre- 
vious engagements  off  his  hands  so  as  to  be  ready  in  season  to  set  sail.  The 
new  expedition  is  to  consist  of  a  steamer ;  and  as  the  district  in  which  Sir 
John  Franklin's  party  are  now  known  to  have  perished  does  not  ex- 
ceed some  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  diameter,  the  search  may  be  per- 
formed with  comparative  rapidity  and  freedom  from  danger.  It  is  certainly 
a  high  compliment  that  the  command  of  a  British  expedition  of  the  kind 
should  be  offered  to  an  American. 

The  following  shows  a  long-practiced  pen,  some- 
what blunted  by  severe  labor  : 

ACCIDENT  TO  THE  "  KEYSTONE  STATE." — On  Monday  morning,  about  one 
o'clock,  the  steamship  Keystone  State,  from  Savannah  for  Philadelphia, 
18* 


210  PARAGRAPHING. 

came  in  collision  with  the  bark  Cavalier,  from  Baltimore  bound  to  Rio. 
The  bow  of  the  steamship  was  stove  iu,  and  she  commenced  making 
water  rapidly.  She  was  soon  freed  from  the  leak,  and  made  for  Norfolk, 
where  she  has  arrived,  and  been  run  on  the  flats  to  keep  her  from  sink- 
ing. At  the  time  of  the  collision  the  first  and  second  mates  and  three 
sailors  belonging  to  the  bark  got  on  the  steamer.  The  bark  was  struck 
opposite  the  foremast  and  crushed  so  as  to  prevent  her  from  reaching  a 
port  The  captain  called  for  help,  and  said  his  vessel  was  sinking,  but  the 
officers  of  the  steamer  were  not  willing  to  risk  the  safety  of  their  passen- 
gers in  endeavoring  to  succor  him.  The  steamship  had  a  most  narrow 
escape.  At  one  time  the  water  had  gained  so  much  as  to  be  within  three 
inches  of  her  fires.  Most  of  the  passengers  of  the  Keystone  State  arrived 
at  Baltimore  this  morning  in  the  boat  from  Norfolk. 

The  next  step  in  the  descending  scale,  is  the  com- 
position of  dry  facts.  This  kind  of  paragraphing 
is  technically  called  hack-writing,  since  it  bears  no 
evidence  of  mind,  and  is  the  last  work  of  a  worn- 
out  brain.  Annexed  are  three  specimens  : 

QUICK  PASSAGE. — The  ship  1  uaearora,  Capt.  Dunlevy,  sailed  from 
Philadelphia  for  Liverpool,  March  23,  remained  in  Liverpool  fifteen  days, 
and  arrived  back  at  Philadelphia  May  26,  in  twenty-eight  days,  making 
the  voyage  out  and  home,  including  her  stay  at  Liverpool,  in  sixty-one 
days. 

MEETING  OP  THE  NEW  ENGLAND  BRANCH  OF  THE  AMERICAN  TRACT  SO- 
CIETY.— At  a  meeting  of  the  New  England  American  Branch  Tract  Society 
yesterday,  after  an  earnest  and  interesting  discussion,  the  Rev.  A.  L.  Stone 
was  elected  on  the  Executive  Committee  in  place  of  the  Rev.  Nehemiah 
Adams,  author  of  the  South  Side  View  of  Slavery.  Mr.  Stone  received 
fifty-six  votes,  and  Mr.  Adams  forty-three.  The  opposition  to  his  re- 
election was  that  New  England  should  not  be  represented  in  a  National 
Society  by  a  person  holding  the  views  of  slavery  attributed  to  Dr.  Adams. 

FILLMORE  AND  DONALDSON  CENTRAL  CLUB.— A  meeting  was  held  last 
evening  at  Military  Hall,  No.  193  Bowery,  composed  of  delegate  from 
nine  Fillmore  Clubs  in  the  different  wards,  with  the  design  of  forming  a 
Central  Club.  Dr.  John  Wetheral,  of  the  Seventh  Ward,  presided.  In 
consequence  of  the  small  number  of  clubs  represented,  it  was  finally  de- 
cided to  call  a  future  meeting  to  perfect  an  organization.  A  Committee 
of  five  was  named  to  meet  at  Merritt's  Hall  this  evening,  to  make  ar 
rangements  for  the  reception  of  Mr.  Fillmore. 


FORMS   OF   LITERARY   REVIEWS. 

NEWSPAPER  criticisms  are  necessarily  brief.  We 
append  the  forms  now  most  in  vogue.  The  first 
two  are  upon  original  publications  ;  the  third  upon 
a  new  edition  of  an  old  work  : 

"  MARRIED;  NOT  MATED.  By  Alice  Gary.— This  is  by  far  the  best  book 
that  Miss  Gary  has  yet  published,  and  it  affords  us  pleasure  to  praise  it. 
In  our  capacity  as  critics,  we  have  several  times  had  occasion  to  notice 
the  lady,  sq^etimes  a  little  severely,  for  what  we  consider  her  chief  fault* 
— the  melancholy  monotony  of  her  writings.  We  have  nothing  of  thfe! 
sort  to  harp  at  in  "Married,  not  Mated."  Bating  the  moral  of  the  story, 
which  is  implied  rather  than  distinctly  stated,  it  is  a  pleasant,  and  in  many 
respects,  a  merry  book.  It  is  impossible  to  read  some  chapters  without 
laughing  heartily.  Miss  Gary  has  a  rich  vein  of  quiet  humor,  which 
shows  itself  in  the  creation  of  two  really  comic  characters,  characters  of 
which  any  modern  novelist  might  well  be  proud — Itache,  an  impudent 
free  and  easy  American  domestic,  and  Uncle  Peter,  or  as  his  cards  have 
it,  Mr.  Samuel  P.  J.  T.  Throckmorton,  a  second  edition  of  Pecksniff,  with 
original  variations.  Both  a?'e  excellently  drawn.  The  rest  of  the  perso- 
nages are  nicely  discriminated ;  even  the  faintest  linger  in  the  mind,  like 
the  remembrances  of  actual  men  and  women.  We  shall  not  tell  you  the 
story,  but  send  you  to  the  book  itself  for  it." 

"  THE  HEROES  ;  OK,  GREEK  FAIRY  TALES  FOR  MY  CHILDREN.  By  the 
Rev.  C.  Kingsley. — Perseus,  the  Argonauts,  and  Theseus,  are  the  subjects 
here  selected  by  Mr.  Kingsley,  and  woven  by  him  into  three  separate 
stories.  His  preface  invites  his  children  to  gather  examples  of  courage 
and  endurance  from  these  antique  legends,  and  reminds  them  how  much 
we  are  ourselves  beholden  to  Greece,  for  the  rudiments  of  Science  and  the 
perfection  of  some  branches  of  Art.  Nothing  could  be  more  felicitous 
than  the  style  and  language  employed.  In  simplicity  they  arc  adapted  to 
the  youngest  child ;  and  yet  they  rise  at  times  almost  into  classic  stateli- 
ness.  Our  author,  so  widely  recognized  as  a  man  of  strong  sense  and  fine 
imagination,  here  also  makes  his  debut  as  an  artist.  But,  Shade  of  Apelles 
what  a  debut  it  is.  The  woodcutting  is  so  bad,  that  the  classical  tumbles 
down  into  the  comical.  Notwithstanding  this— from  the  third  illustration 
alone — wo  would  venture  to  declare  that  the  original  designs  were  clever." 

4i  ANCIENT  SPANISH  BALLADS.  Translated  by  J.  G.  Lockliart. — A  new 
and  very  neat  edition  of  a  work  that  is  entirely  independent  of  criticism : 

(211) 


212  FORMS    OF    LITERARY    REVIEWS. 

it  passed  through  the  ordeal  long  ago,  and  became  at  once  an  unquestioned 
favorite.  Who,  indeed,  maiden  or  youth,  gifted  with  a  spark  of  love  01 
romance  or  poetry,  is  unfamiliar  with  the  false  Andallo,  and  has  not  sung 
or  repeated  the  stirring  adjuration, 

Rise  up,  rise  up,  Xarifa!  lay  the  golden  cushion  down; 
Eise  up,  come  to  the  window,  and  gaze  with  all  the  town  ! 

Very,  very  rarely  has  a  translator  reproduced  so  much  of  the  grace  snd 
spirit  of  his  originals.  The  youthful  generation  jrre  to  be  envied,  who  first 
make  acquaintance,  through  these  flowing  strains,  with  the  chivalric  days 
of  Spain.  The  value  of  this  welcome  duodecimo  is  increased  by  the  re- 
publication  therein  of  a  noble  tribute  to  the  memory  of  Lockhart,  that 
appeared  in  the  London  Times,  on  the  occasion  of  his  death,  in  December, 
1854." 

Another  form,  and  somewhat  less  critical  than 
the  above,  will  be  found  in  the  following,  which 
may  be  regarded  as  fair  specimens  of  the  literary 
"notices"  which  have  of  late  years  so  generally 
taken  the  place  of  criticism  : 

"  With  pleasure  we  acknowledge  the  receipt  of '  A  MEMOIR  OF  THE  EEV. 
LEGH  RICHMOND,  A.M.,'  a  man  to  whom  many,  very  many,  owe  the  light 
which  has  shown  them  the  way  to  salvation.  To  his  little  tract  of  •  The 
Dairyman's  Daughter'  alone,  thousands  have  traced  their  conversion  and 
eternal  happiness.  The  memoir  is  by  the  Eev.  T.  S.  Grimshaw,  A.M.,  an 
English  divine,  and  is  reprinted  by  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Society  of 
New  York,  from  the  twelfth  London  Edition.  It  has  long  been  scarce 
and  difficult  to  procure,  and  every  one  should  possess  himself  of  one  of 
these  neat  copies,  in  view  of  such  scarcity  again." 

"Another  most  valuable  book  we  find  in  'A  KEY  TO  THE  BIBLE/  by 
David  Dobbie.  It  consists  of 'an  exposition  of  the  history,  axioms  and 
general  laws  of  sacred  interpretation,'  and  seems  fully  to  meet  the  serious 
wants  of  those  who  are  desirous  of  studying  the  '  Sacred  Scriptures,1  and 
who  cannot  always  have  access  to  some  grave  theologian  to  explain  dark 
passages  and  reason  away  doubts." 

"  Miss  A.  A.  Goddard  has  gathered  together  her  mental  offspring  in  an 
interesting  family  circle,  which  she  calls  'GLEANINGS:  BOMB  WHEAT, 
SOME  CHAFF.'  Having  no  wish  to  be  classed  among  the  *  unsympathizing 
critics,'  whose  'rough  growings'  she  deprecates,  we  will  simply  open  the 
door  of  the  great  world  to  her  little  family,  whom  she  seems  perfectly 
willing  to  trust  to  the  ordeal." 


CONCLUSION.  £13 

CONCLUSION. — The  author  of  these  pages  think,? 
he  need  say  no  more  to  show  the  necessity  for  sucli 
a  work  as  the  present — a  work  which  he  feels 
much  pleasure  in  now  submitting  to  the  notice  of  a 
candid  and  discriminating  public. 

To  the  learned  and  enlightened  members  of  the 
Scholastic  Profession,  the  author  would  respect- 
fully suggest  that  his  little  volume  might,  perhaps, 
be  advantageously  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  youth 
L  ntrusted  to  their  care. 


3Cihwti[  nr  itert} ;  tjp  tent  jfntimtnl 


THREE  PRIZE   ESSAYS 

**\ 


ON 


AMERICAN    SLAVERY. 


"THE   TRUTH   IN   LOVE/' 


BOSTON : 

CONGREGATIONAL  BOARD  OF  PUBLICATION. 
1857. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1857,  by 

SEWALL    HARDING, 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


CAMBRIDGE : 

ALLEN    AND    FARNHAM,  STEREOTYPERS    AND    PRINTERS. 


PREMIUM   OFFERED. 

A  BENEVOLENT  individual,  who  has  numerous  friends 
and  acquaintances  both  North  and  South,  and  who  has  had 
peculiar  opportunities  for  learning  the  state  and  condition  of 
all  sections  of  the  nation,  perceiving  the  danger  of  our 
national  Institutions,  and  deeply  impressed  with  a  sense  of 
the  importance,  in  this  time  of  peril,  of  harmonizing  Chris- 
tian men  through  the  country,  by  kind  yet  faithful  exhibi- 
tions of  truth  on  the  subject  now  agitating  the  whole  com* 
munity,  offered  a  premium  of  Si  00  for  the  best  Essay  on  the 
subject  of  Slavery,  fitted  to  influence  the  great  body  of 
Christians  through  the  land. 

The  call  was  soon  responded  to  by  nearly  fifty  writers, 
whose  manuscripts  were  examined  by  the  distinguished  com- 
mittee appointed  by  the  Donor,  whose  award  has  been  made, 
as  their  certificate,  here  annexed,  will  show. 


PREMIUM    AWARDED. 

THE  undersigned,  appointed  a  Committee  to  award  a  pre- 
mium of  one  hundred  dollars,  offered  by  a  benevolent  indi- 
vidual, for  the  best  Essay  on  the  subject  of  Slavery,  "  adapted 

(iii) 


IV  PREMIUM   AWAEDED. 

to  receive  the  approbation  of  Evangelical  Christians  gener- 
ally," have  had  under  examination  more  than  forty  compet- 
ing manuscripts,  a  large  number  of  them  written  with  much 
ability.  They  have  decided  to  award  the  prize  to  the  author 
of  the  Essay  entitled,  "  The  Error  and  the  Duty  in  regard  to 
Slavery"  whom  they  find,  on  opening  the  accompanying 
envelope,  to  be  the  Rev.  R.  B.  THURSTON,  of  Chicopee 
Falls,  Mass. 

They  would  also  commend  to  the  attention  of  the  public, 
two  of  the  remaining  tracts,  selected  by  the  individual  who 
offered  the  prize,  and  for  which  he  and  others  interested 
have  given  a  prize  of  one  hundred  dollars  each.  One  of 
these  is  entitled,  "Friendly  Letters  to  a  Christian  Slave- 
holder" by  Rev.  A.  C.  BALDWIN,  of  Durham,  Conn. ;  the 
other,  "  Is  American  Slavery  an  Institution  which  Chris- 
tianity sanctions  and  will  perpetuate  ? "  by  Rev.  TIMOTHY 
WILLISTON,  of  Strongsville,  Ohio. 

ASA  D.  SMITH, 
MARK  HOPKINS, 
THEODORE  FRELIN<*[UYSEN. 
May,  1857. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGK 
I.  THE  ERROR  AND  THE  DUTY  IN  REGARD  TO  SLAVERY,    1 

II.  FRIENDLY  LETTERS  TO  A  CHRISTIAN  SLAVE-HOLDER,    39 

III.  IS  AMERICAN  SLAVERY  AN  INSTITUTION  WHICH 
CHRISTIANITY  SANCTIONS  AND  WILL  PERPET- 
UATE, .  .  .  *  ...........  99 


THE    ERROR   AND    THE    DUTY 


IN 


REGARD  TO  SLAVERY. 


REV.  R.  B.  THURSTON. 


THE  ERROR  AND  THE  DUTY 

IN  KEGAKD  TO   SLAVERY. 


THE  great  and  agitating  question  of  our 
country  is  that  concerning  slavery.  Beneath 
the  whole  subject  there  lies  of  course  some  sim- 
ple truth,  for  all  fundamental  truth  is  simple, 
which  will  be  readily  accepted  by  patriotic  and 
Christian  minds,  when  it  is  clearly  perceived 
and  discreetly  applied.  It  is  the  design  of  these 
pages  to  exhibit  this  truth,  and  to  show  that  it 
is  a  foundation  for  a  union  of  sentiment  and 
action  on  the  part  of  good  men,  by  which,  under 
the  divine  blessing,  our  threatening  controver- 
sies, North  and  South,  may  be  happily  termi- 
nated. 

To  avoid  misapprehension,  let  it  be  noticed 
that  we  shall  examine  the  central  claim  of  sla- 
very, first,  as  a  legal  institution ;  afterwards,  the 

1  (!) 


2  THE   ERROR   AND   THE   DUTY 

moral  relations  of  individuals  connected  with  it 
will  be  considered.  In  that  examination  the 
term  property,  as  possessed  in  men,  will  be  used 
in  the  specific  sense  which  is  given  to  it  by 
the  slave  laws  and  the  practical  operation  of  the 
system.  No  other  sense  is  relevant  to  the  dis- 
cussion. The  property  of  the  father  in  the  ser- 
vices t of  the  son,  of  the  master  in  the  labor  of 
the  apprentice,  of  the  State  in  the  forced  toil  of 
the  convict,  is  not  in  question.  None  of  these 
relations  creates  slavery  as  such  ;  and  they  should 
not  be  allowed,  as  has  sometimes  been  done,  to 
obscure  the  argument. 

The  limits  of  a  brief  tract  on  a  great  subject 
compel  us  to  pass  unnoticed  many  questions 
which  will  occur  to  a  thoughtful  mind.  It  is 
believed  that  they  all  find  their  solution  in  our 
fundamental  positions ;  and  that  all  passages 
of  the  Bible  relating  to  the  general  subject,  when 
faithfully  interpreted  in  their  real  harmony,  sus- 
tain these  positions.  It  is  admitted  that  the 
following  argument  is  unsound  if  it  does  not 
provide  for  every  logical  and  practical  exigency. 

The  primary  truth  which  is  now  to  be  estab- 
lished may  be  thus  stated :  All  men  are  invested 
by  the  Creator  with  a  common  right  to  hold  prop- 
erty in  inferior  things;  but  they  have  no  such 
right  to  hold  property  in  men. 


IN   REGARD    TO    SLAVERY.  3 

Christians  agree  that  God  as  the  Creator  is 
the  original  proprietor  of  all  things,  and  that  he 
has  absolute  right  to  dispose  of  all  things  ac- 
cording to  his  pleasure.  This  right  he  never 
relinquishes,  but  asserts  in  his  word  and  exer- 
cises in  his  providence.  The  Bible  speaks  thus : 
"  The  earth  is  the  Lord's  and  the  fulness  thereof, 
the  world  and  they  that  dwell  therein,  for  he  hath 
founded  it.  We  are  his  people  and  the  sheep 
of  his  pasture  "  —  ourselves,  therefore,  subject  to 
his  possession  and  disposal  as  the  feeble  flock  to 
us.  Even  irreligious  men  often  testify  to  this 
truth,  confessing  the  hand  of  providence  in  nat- 
ural events  that  despoil  them  of  their  wealth. 

Now,  under  his  own  supreme  control,  God 
has  given  to  all  men  equally  a  dependent  and 
limited  right  of  property.  Given  is  the  word 
repeatedly  chosen  by  inspiration  in  this  connec- 
tion. "  The  heavens  are  the  Lord's,  but  the 
earth  hath  he  given  to  the  children  of  men." 
In  Eden  he  blessed  the  first  human  pair,  and 
said  to  them,  in  behalf  of  the  race,  "  Replenish 
the  earth  and  subdue  it ;  and  have  dominion 
over  the  fish  of  the  sea,  and  over  the  fowl  of  the 
air,  and  over  every  living  thing  that  moveth 
upon  the  earth.  Behold,  I  have  given  you  every 
herb  bearing  seed  which  is  upon  the  face  of  all 
the  earth,  and  every  tree  in  the  which  is  the 


4  THE   ERROR  AND   THE   DUTY 

fruit  of  a  tree  yielding  seed."  This,  then,  is 
the  original  and  permanent  ground  of  man's 
title  to  property ;  and  the  important  fact  to  be 
observed  is  the  specific  divine  grant.  The  right 
of  all  men  equally  to  own  property  is  the  posi- 
tive institution  of  the  Creator.  We  all  alike 
hold  our  possessions  by  his  authentic  warrant, 
his  deed  of  conveyance. 

Let  us  be  understood  here.  We  are  not 
educing  from  the  Bible  a  doctrine  which  would 
level  society,  by  giving  to  all  men  equal  shares 
of  property ;  but  a  doctrine  which  extends  equal 
divine  protection  over  the  right  of  every  man 
to  hold  that  amount  of  property  which  he  earns 
by  his  own  faculties,  in  consistency  with  all 
divine  statutes. 

This  right  is  indeed  argued  from  nature ;  and 
justly ;  for  God's  revelations  in  nature  and  in 
his  word  coincide.  It  is,  however,  a  right  of  so 
much  consequence  to  the  world,  that,  where 
nature  leaves  it,  he  incorporates  it,  and  gives 
it  the  force  of  a  law;  so  that  in  the  sequel 
we  can  with  propriety  speak  of  it  as  a  law,  as 
well  as  an  institution.  To  the  believer  in  the 
Bible,  this  law  is  the  end  of  argument. 

It  will  have  weight  with  some  minds  to  state 
that  this  position  is  supported  by  the  highest 
legal  authority.  In  his  Commentaries  on  the 


IN  REGARD    TO    SLAVERY.  O 

Laws  of  England,  Blackstone  quotes  the  prime- 
val grant  of  God,  and  then  remarks,  "  This  is  the 
only  true  and  solid  foundation  of  man's  dominion 
over  external  things,  whatever  airy  metaphysical 
notions  may  have  been  started  by  fanciful  writers 
upon  this  subject.  The  earth,  therefore,  and  all 
things  therein,  are  the  general  property  of  all 
mankind,  exclusive  of  other  beings,  from  the 
immediate  gift  of  the  Creator."  * 

It  will  enhance  the  force  of  this  argument  to 
remember  that  this  universal  right  of  property  is 
one  of  what  may  be  called  a  sacred  trinity  of 
paradisaical  institutions.  These  institutions  are 
the  Sabbath,  appointed  in  regard  for  our  rela- 
tions to  God  as  moral  beings ;  marriage,  ordained 
for  our  welfare  as  members  of  a  successive  race ; 
and  the  right  of  property,  conferred  to  meet  our 
necessities  as  dwellers  on  this  material  globe. 
These  three  are  the  world's  inheritance  from  lost 
Eden.  They  were  received  by  the  first  father 
in  behalf  of  all  his  posterity.  They  were  de- 
signed for .  all  men  as  men.  It  is  demonstrable 
that  they  are  indispensable,  that  the  world  may 
become  Paradise  Regained.  "  Property,  marriage, 
and  religion  have  been  called  the  pillars  of  soci- 

*  An  extended  passage  containing  the  extract  may  be 
found  conveniently  in  Chambers'  Cyclopaedia  of  English 
Literature,  vol.  2,  p.  246. 


6  THE   ERROR   AND   THE   DUTY 

ety ; "  and  the  first  is  of  equal  importance  with  the 
other  two;  for  all  progress  in  domestic  felicity 
and  in  religious  culture  depends  on  property, 
and  also  on  the  equitable  distribution  or  posses- 
sion of  property,  as  one  of  its  essential  condi- 
tions. Property  lies  in  the  foundation  of  every 
happy  home,  however  humble  ;  and  property 
gilds  the  pinnacle  of  every  consecrated  temple. 
The  wise  and  impartial  Disposer,  therefore, 
makes  the  endowments  of  his  creatures  equal 
with  their  responsibilities :  to  all  those  on  whom 
he  lays  the  obligations  of  religion  and  of  the 
family  state,  he  gives  the  right  of  holding  the 
property  on  which  the  dwelling  and  the  sanctu- 
ary must  be  founded.  It  is  a  sacred  right,  a 
divine  investiture,  bearing  the  date  of  the  crea- 
tion and  the  seal  of  the  Creator. 

The  blessing  of  this  institution,  like  that  of 
the  Sabbath  and  of  the  family,  has  indeed  been 
shattered  by  the  fall  of  man ;  but  when  God 
said  to  Noah  and  his  sons,  concerning  the  inferior 
creatures,  "  Into  your  hand  are  they  delivered ; 
even  as  the  green  herb  have  I  given  you  all 
things,"  it  was  reestablished  and  consecrated 
anew.  The  Psalmist  repeated  the  assurance 
to  the  world  when  he  wrote,  "  Thou  madest 
him  to  have  dominion  over  the  works  of  thy 
hand ;  thou  hast  put  all  things  under  his  feet." 


IN  REGARD   TO    SLAVERY.  7 

We  now  advance  to  the  second  part  of  our 
proposition.  Men  have  no  such  right  to  hold 
property  in  men.  Since  the  right  is  from  God, 
it  follows  immediately  that  they  can  hold  in 
ownership,  by  a  divine  title,  only  what  he  has 
given.  But  he  has  not  given  to  men,  as  men,  a 
right  of  ownership  in  men.  No  one  will  con- 
tend for  a  moment  that  the  universal  grant  above 
considered  confers  upon  them  mutual  dominion, 
or  rightful  property  in  their  species.  The  idea 
is  not  in  the  terms ;  it  is  nowhere  in  the  Bible ; 
it  is  not  in  nature ;  it  is  repugnant  to  common 
sense  ;  it  would  resolve  the  race  into  the  absurd 
and  terrific  relation  of  antagonists,  struggling, 
each  one  for  the  mastery  of  his  own  estate  in 
another,  —  I,  for  the  possession  of  my  right  in 
you ;  and  you,  for  yours  in  me.  Nay,  the  very 
act  of  entitling  all  men  to  hold  property  proves 
the  exemption  of  all,  by  the  divine  will,  from  the 
condition  of  property.  The  idea  that  a  man 
can  be  an  article  of  property  and  an  owner  of 
property  by  the  same  supreme  warrant  is  con- 
tradictory and  absurd. 

We  now  have  sure  ground  for  objecting  to 
the  system  of  American  slavery,  as  such.  It  is 
directly  opposed  to  the  original,  authoritative  in- 
stitution of  Jehovah.  He  gives  men  the  right  to 
hold  property.  Slavery  strips  them  of 'the  divine 


8         THE  ERROR  AND  THE  DUTY 

investiture.  He  gives  men  dominion  over  in- 
ferior creatures.  Slavery  makes  them  share  the 
subjection  of  the  brute.  That  slavery  does  this, 
the  laws  of  the  States  in  which  it  exists  abun- 
dantly declare.  Slaves  are  "  chattels,"  "  estate 
personal."  Slave-holders  assembled  in  conven- 
tion solemnly  affirm  in  view  of  northern  agita- 

—  I  tion  of  the  subject,  that  "  masters  have  the  same 
right  to  their  slaves  which  they  have  to  any 
other  property." 

This  asserted  and  exercised  right  is  the  vital 

^j  principle  and  substance  of  the  institution.  It  is 
the  central  delusion  and  transgression;  and  the 
evils  of  the  system  to  white  and  black  are  its 
legitimate  consequences.  The  legal  and  the  lead- 
ing idea  concerning  slaves  is  that  they  are  prop- 
erty :  of  course,  the  idea  that  they  are  men,  in- 
vested with  the  rights  of  men,  practically  sinks ; 
and,  from  the  premise  that  they  are  property,  the 
I  conclusion  is  logical  that  they  may  be  treated 
as  property.  Why  should  property,  contrary  to 
the  interests  of  the  proprietor,  be  exempt  from 
sale,  receive  instruction,  give  testimony  in  court, 
hold  estate,  preserve  family  ties,  be  loved  as  the 
owner  loves  himself,  in  fine,  enjoy  all  or  any  of 
the  "inalienable  rights"  of  man?  It  is  because 
they  are  held  as  property,  that  slaves  are  sold ; 
because  they  are  property,  families  are  torn 


IN  REGARD   TO    SLAVERY.  9 

asunder ;  because  they  are  property,  instruction 
is  denied  them;  because  they  are  property,  the 
law,  and  the  public  sentiment  that  makes  the 
law,  crush  them  as  men. 

We  do  not  here  call  in  question  the  mitiga- 
tions with  which  Christian  masters  temper  into 
mildness  the  hard  working  of  an  evil  system. 
Those  mitigations  do  not,  however,  logically  or 
morally  defend  slavery.  Nay,  they  condemn  it ; 
for  they  are  practical  tributes  to  the  fact  that 
the  laws  of  humanity,  not  of  property,  are  bind- 
ing in  respect  to  the  slaves.  Hence  they  really 
show  the  inherent  inconsistency  of  the  idea,  and 
the  unrighteousness  of  the  system  which  regards 
men  as  property. 

Notwithstanding  those  mitigations,  the  system, 
itself,  like  every  wrong  system,  produces  char- 
acteristic evils,  which  can  be  prevented  only  by 
removing  their  cause,  the  false  doctrine  that  men: 
can  be  rightfully  held  in  ownership.  Fallen  as 
man  is,  no  prophet  was  needed  to  foretell  at  the 
first  the  dreadful  facts  that  have  been  recorded 
in  the  bitter  history  of  man's  claim  of  property 
in  man.  Such  a  history  must  always  be  a  scroll 
written  within  and  without  with  lamentations 
and  mourning  and  woe.  Man  is  not  a  safe  de-  . 
positary  of  such  power.  A  human  institution 
which  subverts  a  divine  institutioai,  and  which 


10         THE  ERROR,  AND  THE  DUTY 

carries  with  it  the  assumption  of  a  divine  prerog- 
ative in  constituting  a  new  species  of  property, 
naturally  saps  the  foundations  of  every  other 
divine  institution  and  law  which  stands  in  its 
way.  Hence,  for  example,  the  fall  of  the  domes- 
tic institution  before  that  of  slavery. 

The  inherent  wrongfulness  of  American  sla- 
very as  a  legal  and  social  institution  is  therefore 
clearly  demonstrated.  It  formally  abolishes  by 
law  and  usage  a  divine  institution.  Hence,  in 
its  practical  operation,  it  sets  aside  other  divine 
institutions  and  laws.  Consequently  it  stands 
in  the  same  relations  to  the  divine  government 
with  the  abolition  of  the  Sabbath  by  infidel 
France,  and  with  the  perversion  of  the  family 
institution  by  the  Mormon  territory  of  Utah. 

Here  the  fundamental  argument  from  the 
Bible  rests.  But  slavery  justifies  itself  by  the 
Bible.  It  becomes  essential,  therefore,  to  examine 
the  validness  of  this  justification. 

There  are  but  two  possible  ways  of  avoiding 
the  conclusion  that  has  been  reached.  To  vindi- 
cate slavery  it  must  be  proved,  first,  that  God  has 
abolished  the  original  institution,  conferring  on 
men  universally  the  right  to  hold  property;  or, 
secondly,  it  must  be  proved,  that,  while  he  has 
by  special  enactments  taken  away  from  a  portion 
of  mankind  the  right  to  hold  property,  he  has 


IN  REGARD   TO    SLAVERY.  11 

given  to  other  men  the  right  to  hold  the  former  as 
property.  Further,  to  justify  American  slavery, 
it  must  be  shown  that  these  special  enactments 
include  the  African  race  and  the  American  States. 

In  regard  to  the  first  point  we  simply  remark, 
it  is  morally  impossible  that  God  should  per- 
manently and  generally  abolish  the  original  in- 
stitution concerning  property;  because,  as  in 
the  case  of  its  coevals,  the  Sabbath  and  mar- 
riage, the  reason  for  it  is  permanent  and  un-  1 
changeable,  and  "  lex  stat  dum  ratio  manet,"  the 
law  stands  while  the  reason  remains.  More- 
over, there  is  not  a  word  of  such  repeal  in  the 
Bible.  That  institution,  therefore,  is  still  a  char-  j 
ter  of  rights  for  the  children  of  men.  Till  it  is 
assailed,  more  need  not  be  said. 

As  to  the  second  point,  we  believe  that  care- 
ful investigation  will  prove  conclusively,  that  no 
special  enactments  are  now  in  force  which  arrest  . 
or  modify  the  institutions  of  Eden,  in  regard  to 
any  state  or  any  persons.  It  will,  then,  remain 
demonstrated,  that  the  legal  system  of  slavery 
exists  utterly  without  warrant  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, and  in  defiance  of  the  authority  of  the 
Creator.  The  word  of  God  is  throughout  con- 
sistent. 

It  is  here  freely  admitted,  that  God  can  arrest 
the  operation  of  general  laws  by  special  statutes. 


12         THE  EEEOE  AND  THE  DUTY 

He  can  take  away  from  men  the  right  to  hold 
property  which  he  has  given,  and,  if  he  please, 
constitute  them  the  property  of  other  men.  It 
is,  in  this  respect,  as  it  is  with  life.  God  can 
take  what  he  gives.  If,  then,  he  has  given  au- 
thority to  individuals  or  to  nations  to  hold  others 
as  property,  they  may  do  so.  Nay,  more ;  if 
their  commission  is  imperative,  they  must  do  so. 
But  such  an  act  of  God  creates  an  exception 
to  his  own  fundamental  law,  and,  like  all  excep- 
tions, conveys  its  own  restrictions,  and  proves  the 
rule.  It  imposes  no  yoke,  save  upon  those  ap- 
pointed to  subjugation.  It  confers  no  author- 
ity, save  upon  those  specifically  invested  with  it. 
They  are  bound  to  keep  absolutely  within  the 
prescribed  terms,  and  no  others  can  innocently 
seize  their  delegated  dominion.  Outside  of  the 
excepted  parties  the  universal  law  has  sway  un- 
impaired. It  is  in  this  instance  as  it  is  in  regard 
to  marriage.  God  permitted  the  patriarchs  to 
multiply  their  wives ;  but  monogamy  is  now  a 
sacred  institution  for  the  world.  So  the  supreme 
Disposer  can  make  a  slave,  or  a  nation  of  slaves; 
and  the  world  shall  be  even  the  more  solemnly 
bound  by  the  original  institutes  concerning 
property.  It  follows,  without  a  chasm  in  the 
argument,  or  a  doubtful  step,  that>  when  persons 
or  States  reduce  men  to  the  condition  of  chat- 


1ST  REGARD   TO   SLAVERY.  13 

tels,  without  divine  authorization,  they  are  guilty     j 
of  subverting  a  divine  institution ;  and,  since  it 
is   the   prerogative  of   God  to  determine  what 
shall   be   property,  they  are   chargeable   with  a 
presumptuous  usurpation  of  divine  prerogative,     — > 
in  making  property,  so  far  as  human  force  and 
law  can   do   it,   of  those   whom  Jehovah   has 
created  in  his  own  image,  and  invested  with  all 
the  original  rights  of  men. 

The  soundness  of  the  principle  contained  in 
these  remarks,  both  in  law  and  in  biblical  inter- 
pretation, will  not  be  questioned.  In  the  light 
of  it,  let  us  examine  briefly  the  justifications  of 
slavery  as  derived  from  the  Bible.  Happily  the 
principle  itself  saves  the  labor  of  minute  and 
protracted  criticism. 

We  first  consider  the  curse  pronounced  upon 
Canaan  by  Noah.     Admitting  all  that  is  neces- 
sary to  the  support  of  slavery,  namely,  that  that 
curse  constituted  the  descendants  of  Canaan  the 
property  of  some  other  tribe   or   people,  upon 
whom  it  conferred  the  right  of  holding  them  as 
property,   yet   even   so   this   passage   does    not     j 
justify    but    condemns    American    slavery;   for 
that  curse   does   not    touch   the    African   race:      . 
they  are  not  descendants  of   Canaan;*   and  it 

*  Genesis,  10th  Chapter.  Vide,  Kitto's  Cyclopaedia,  for 
views  in  this  connection. 


14         THE  ERROR  AND  THE  DUTY 

gives  no  rights  to  American  States.  In  later 
times  the  Canaanites  were  devoted  to  destruc- 
tion for  their  sins.  The  Hebrews  were  the  agents 
appointed  by  Jehovah  to  this  work  of  retribution. 
It  was  not,  however,  accomplished  in  their  entire 
extermination.  In  the  case  of  the  Gibeonites 
it  was  formally  commuted  to  servitude,  and  other 
nations  occupying  the  promised  land  were  made 
tributary.  Thus  the  curse  upon  Canaan  was  ful- 
filled by  authorized  executioners  of  divine  justice. 

What  light  does  the  whole  history  now  throw 
upon  slavery  ?  It  is  plain  the  curse  was  a  judi- 
cial act  of  God  concerning  Canaan.  It  follows 
that  conquest  with  extermination  or  servitude 
was  a  judgment  of  God,  which  he  appointed  his 
chosen  people  to  execute.  It  follows  further, 
that  those,  who,  without  his  commission,  reduce 
to  bondage  men  who  are  not  descendants  of  Ca- 
naan, do  inflict  a  curse  on  those  whom  he  has 
_l  not  cursed;  and  thus  virtually  assume  his  most 
awful  prerogative  as  the  Judge  of  guilty  nations. 

We  then  inquire  whether  the  States  of  the 
South  have  received  warrant  for  enslaving  any 
portion  of  mankind.  Has  God  given  them  the 
African  race  as  property?  Where  is  the  com- 
mission ?  The  argument  fails  to  justify  modern 
|  slavery  for  the  same  reason  identically  that  it 
fails  to  justify  offensive  war  and  conquest.  God 


IN   REGARD    TO    SLAVERY.  15 

has  not  given  the  right  —  has  neither  proclaimed 
the  curse,  nor  jcommissioned  the  agent  of  the 
curse.  Christian  States  in  America  seize  it,  and 
lay  it  upon  those  whom  he  has  not  cursed.  The 
passage  of  his  word  which  has  been  considered 
affords  them  no  sanction. 

We  proceed  to  another  passage.  It  is  sup- 
posed by  many  to  be  an  incontrovertible  defence 
of  modern  slavery,  that  the  Hebrews  were  au-  j 
thorized  to  buy  bondmen  and  bondmaids  of  the 
heathen  round  about  them.  Let  us  candidly  ex- 
amine this  defence. 

Why  were  the  Hebrews  authorized  by  God  in 
express  terms  to  buy  servants,  and  possess  them 
as  their  "  money  ?  "  Evidently  because  they  did  not  \— 
otherwise  have  this  authority.  Human  beings,  as 
we  have  seen,  were  not  "given"  in  the  grant  of 
property.  They  do  not,  therefore,  fall  within  the 
scope  of  the  general  laws  of  property.  If  they 
had  so  fallen,  the  special  statutes,  by  which  the 
Hebrews  purchased  them,  would  have  been  as 
gratuitous  as  special  enactments  for  buying  ani- 
mals, trees,  and  minerals.  Of  all  nations  they 
only  have  possessed  this  right;  for  they  only  re- 
ceived it  by  special  bestowment.  The  rest  of  man- 
kind have  ever  been  prohibited  from  assuming  it 
by  fundamental  laws.  If  ever  there  was  a  case 
in  which  the  exception  proves  the  rule,  that  case 


16         THE  ERROR  AND  THE  DUTY 

is  before  us ;  and  therefore  a  chasm  yawns  be- 
tween the  premise  and  the  conclusion  defensive 
of  slavery,  which  no  exegesis  and  no  logic  can 
bridge  over. 

To  illustrate  the  strength  of  this  argument,  let 
the  fact  be  observed,  that,  if  it  could  be  set  aside, 
it  would  follow,  by  parity  of  reasoning,  that  the 
clergy  of  our  country,  regardless  of  fundamental 
laws,  have  right  to  take  possession  of  a  tenth 
part  of  the  estates  and  incomes  of  their  fellow- 
citizens,  because  the  Levites  in  this  manner  re- 
ceived their  inheritance  among  their  brethren. 
It  is  plain,  however,  that,  as  in  regard  to  other 
interests  no  less  important  than  liberty  or  slavery, 
so  also  in  regard  to  slavery  itself,  the  special  laws 
of  the  Old  Testament  are  no  longer  in  force; 
whence  it  follows  that  the  vital  doctrine  of  the 
system,  "  masters  have  the  same  right  to  their 
slaves  which  they  have  to  any  other  property," 
is  totally  erroneous.  The  institution  which 
claims  solid  foundation  here  is  built  on  nothing. 

We  cannot  forbear  to  adduce  an  instance  of 
unexceptionable  testimony  to  the  validity  of  this 
reasoning.  In  one  or  two  famous  articles  on 
slavery  and  abolitionism,  the  Princeton  Reper- 
tory adopts  it,  with  another  application,  and  says, 
"  So  far  as  polygamy  and  divorce  were  permitted 
under  the  old  dispensation  they  were  lawful,  and 


IN  REGARD   TO   SLAVERY.  17 

became  so  by  that  permission ;  and  they  ceased  | 
to  be  lawful  when  that  permission  was  with- 
drawn, and  a  nevfc  law  given.  That  Christ  did 
give  a  new  law  is  abundantly  evident,"  In  the 
same  manner,  (  so  far  as '  slavery  '  was  permitted 
under  the  old  dispensation  it  was  lawful,  and 
became  so  by  that  permission ;  and  it  ceased  to 
be  lawful  when  that  permission  was  withdrawn, 
and  a  new  law  given.'  It  is  true,  however,  only 
in  a  qualified  sense,  that  Christ  gave  "  a  new 
law"  concerning  polygamy  and  divorce.  His 
law  restored  the  original  institution  of  marriage, 
as  in  Eden ;  and  this  was  "  new "  to  the  Jews,  — 
because  there  had  been  departure  from  it.  In 
like  manner  the  New  Testament,  if  not  the  very 
words  of  Christ,  now  gives  a  new  law  concerning 
slavery  in  the  same  sense ;  that  is,  as  will  ap- 
pear, in  the  sequel,  the  Christian  precepts  restore 
the  original  institution  concerning  property  as 
well  as  concerning  marriage.  The  laws  which 
allowed  polygamy  and  slavery,  and  therefore  the 
right,  passed  away  together. 

Here  we  leave  the  Old  Testament.  No  other 
passages  need  examination ;  for  all  consist  with 
these  positions.  So  far  as  that  sacred  volume 
gives  light,  the  world  are  bound  by  the  laws  and 
have  equal  right  to  the  full  blessings  of  three  di- 
vine institutions,  whose  foundations  were  laid  in 
2 


18         THE  ERROR  AND  THE  DUTY 

Paradise,  and  whose  complete  and  glorious  pro- 
portions will  encompass  the  universal,  millennial 
felicity. 

The  defence  of  slavery  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment now  demands  brief  notice.  We  desire  to 
allow  it  full  force,  while  we  ask  the  reader's  can- 
did judgment  of  the  conclusion. 

Of  course,  the  New  Testament  sanctions  now 
what  it  sanctioned  in  the  days  of  its  authors. 
That  must  have  been  Roman,  not  Hebrew,  sla- 
very; for  they  lived  and  wrote  to  men  under 
Roman  law.  Besides,  there  is  reason  to  believe, 
as  Kitto  states,  that  the  Jews  at  that  time  held 
no  slaves.  In  point  of  historic  truth,  it  appears 
that  the  Mosaic  law,  finding  slavery  in  existence, 
practically  operated  as  a  system  of  gradual  eman- 
cipation for  its  extinction.  "  There  is  no  evi- 
dence that  Christ  ever  came  in  contact  with  sla- 
very." This  sufficiently  explains  why  he  did  not 
give  a  "new  law"  concerning  it  in  specific  terms. 
The  occasion  did  not  arise,  as  it  did  arise  in  re- 
gard to  polygamy  and  divorce,  with  which  he  did 
come  in  contact.  Furthermore,  there  was  no 
need  of  new  law,  other  than  was  actually  given. 

The  argument  from  the  New  Testament  for 
the  rightfulness  of  slavery  is  twofold,  being  built 
on  the  instructions  given  to  masters  and  servants. 
It  fails  on  both  sides. 


IN  REGARD   TO    SLAVERY.  19 

For,  first,  the  precepts  addressed  to  servants 
convey  no  authority  to  national  rulers  or  to 
private  individuals  to  set  aside  the  institution 
of  Jehovah  by  reducing  men  to  the  condition 
of  slaves.  These  precepts  simply  enjoin  the 
conduct  which  Christianity  required  in  their  act- 
ual situation.  They  do  not  vindicate  the  law 
and  usage  by  which  they  were  held  as  property. 
This  is  abundantly  evident  in  the  texts  them- 
selves, and  more  emphatically,  when  they  are 
compared  with  the  parallel  cases. 

Christ  promulgated  these  rules.  "  I  say  unto 
you  that  ye  resist  not  evil ;  but  whosoever  shall 
smite  thee  on  thy  right  cheek,  turn  to  him  the 
other  also.  And  if  any  man  will  sue  thee  at  the 
law  and  take  away  thy  coat,  let  him  have  thy 
cloak  also."  Does  this  empower  States  to  legal- 
ize fraud  and  violence  ?  Does  it  transmute  all 
the  evil  which  Jesus'  disciples  have  endured 
into  righteousness  of  those  who  have  inflicted 
the  evil  ?  Does  it  wash  the  crimsoned  hands  of 
persecutors  in  innocency?  Does  it  justify  the 
wilful  smiter?  All  men  know  better.  No  one 
contends  for  such  exposition.  Yet  it  is  indis- 
pensable to  the  interpretation  which  finds  a  jus- 
tification of  slavery  in  precepts  which  enjoin 
obedience  on  slaves.  That  obedience  is  re- 
quired on  other  grounds. 


20         THE  ERROR  AND  THE  DUTY 

Another  example.  The  New  Testament  ex- 
plicitly commands  citizens  to  submit  to  the  civil 
power.  Does  this  sanctify  the  tyranny  of  a 
Nero  or  a  Nicholas?  In  the  enjoined  submis- 
sion of  subjects,  has  the  despot,  or  the  state,  full 
license  for  edicts  and  acts  of  oppression  and 
iniquity?  Yet  they  are  logically  compelled  to 
admit  this,  and  thus,  in  theory  at  least,  banish 
freedom  from  the  whole  earth,  who  find  in  com- 
mands addressed  to  servants  power  conferred  on 
legislators  and  masters  to  make  them  slaves, 
that  is,  to  hold  them  as  property.  Instead  of 
this,  the  rights  and  obligations  of  rulers,  and  of 
those  who  claim  to  be  owners  of  their  fellow 
men,  aie  defined  in  a  very  different  class  of  in- 
structions. 

Secondly,  the  instructions  addressed  to  masters 
forbid  the  exercise  of  the  right  which  is  assumed 
in  slavery.  To  make  this  clear,  we  observe, 
primarily,  there  is  no  passage  in  the  New  Testa- 
~l  ment  which  institutes  the  relation  of  men  held 
in  ownership  by  men.  There  is  no  direct  refer- 
ence to  the  civil  laws  which  constituted  this 
relation.  They  are  passed  by  silently,  as  are  the 
laws  that  established  idolatry,  and  kindled  the 
fires  of  persecution.  Their  existence  is  tacitly 
acknowledged  in  the  use  of  the  terms  which  des- 
ignate masters  and  servants;  and  that  is  all 


IN  REGARD   TO    SLAVERY.  21 

Hence  those  who  find  here  an  apology  for  slavery 
are  obliged  to  refer  to  secular  history  for  the 
facts  and  definitions  on  which  their  argument 
rests.  Accordingly,  no  passage  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament would  be  void  of  meaning,  though  slav-  1 
ery  should  cease.  In  this  respect  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States  resembles  the  sacred 
books ;  for  not  one  word  of  that  instrument,  in- 
terpreted on  just  principles  as  the  palladium  of 
liberty,  needs  to  be  obliterated  in  the  abolition  I* 
of  slavery.  Furthermore,  and  this  covers  our 
position,  the  New  Testament,  disregarding  the 
Roman  law,  refers  masters  exclusively  to  the  i^, 
law  of  God  as  their  rule  for  the  treatment  of 
servants.  A  single  citation,  with  which  all  pas- 
sages agree,  is  sufficient  to  show  this.  "  Masters, 
give  unto  your  servants  that  which  is  just  and 
equal,  knowing  that  ye  also  have  a  Master  in 
heaven."  Now,  as  none  can  find  in  such  pre- 
cepts a  right  to  destroy  God's  primary  institu- 
tion concerning  the  family,  no  more  can  they  find 
in  them  a  right  to  destroy  his  primary  and  uni- 
versal institution  concerning  property.  Stronger 
than  this,  the  conclusion  is  inevitable,  that  the 
very  precepts  which  are  relied  upon  to  support 
American  slavery  do  condemn  and  destroy  it; 
for  the  law  of  God,  by  which  they  bind  masters, 
ordaining  from  Eden  what  is  just  and  equal 


22        THE  ERROR  AND  THE  DUTY 

between  men,  abolishes   the   fundamental   and 
central  law  of  the  system.* 

*  Col.  4  :  1 ;  "Ye  masters,  give  unto  your  servants  that 
which  is  just  and  equal."  That  is,  act  towards  them  on  the 
principles  of  justice  and  equity.  Justice  requires  that  all 
their  rights,  as  men,  as  husbands,  and  as  parents,  should  be 
regarded.  And  these  rights  are  not  to  be  determined  by  the 
civil  law,  but  by  the  law  of  God.  .  .  .  But  God  concedes  noth- 
ing to  the  master  beyond  what  the  law  of  love  allows.  Paul 
requires  for  servants  not  only  what  is  strictly  just,  but 
rTjv  iodrrjTa.  What  is  that  ?  Literally,  it  is  equality.  This 
is  not  only  its  signification,  but  its  meaning.  Servants  are 
to  be  treated  by  their  masters  on  the  principles  of  equal- 
ity. Not  that  they  are  to  be  equal  with  their  masters  in 
authority  or  station  or  circumstances ;  but  that  they  are  to 
be  treated  as  having,  as  men,  as  husbands,  and  as  parents, 
equal  rights  with  their  masters.  It  is  just  as  great  a  sin  to 
deprive  a  servant  of  the  just  recompense  for  his  labor,  or  to 
keep  him  in  ignorance,  or  to  take  from  him  his  wife  or  child, 
as  it  is  to  act  thus  towards  a  free  man.  This  is  the  equality 
which  the  law  of  God  demands,  and  on  this  principle  the  final 
judgment  is  to  be  administered.  Christ  will  punish  the  mas- 
ter for  defrauding  the  servant  as  severely  as  he  will  punish 
the  servant  for  robbing  his  master.  The  same  penalty  will 
be  inflicted  for  the  violation  of  the  conjugal  or  parental 
rights  of  the  one  as  of  the  other.  For,  as  the  apostle  adds, 
there  is  no  respect  of  persons  with  him.  At  his  bar  the  ques- 
tion will  be,  "  What  was  done  ?  "  not  "  Who  did  it  ?  "  Paul 
carries  this  so  far  as  to  apply  the  principle  not  only  to  the 
acts,  but  to  the  temper  of  masters.  They  are  not  only  to 
act  towards  their  servants  on  the  principles  of  justice  and 
equity,  but  are  to  avoid  threatening.  This  includes  all  mani- 


IN  REGARD   TO   SLAVERY.  23 

It  is  argued,  indeed,  that  slavery  is  right,  be- 
cause masters,  as  well  as  fathers  and  rulers,  may 
require  obedience.  The  argument  fails  utterly ; 
for  there  is  at  the  foundation  no  analogy  in  the  \ 
cases.  The  family  and  the  State  are  divine 
institutions,  having  sanction  in  the  Bible ;  but  ^ 
slavery  subverts  a  divine  institution.  Fathers 
and  rulers,  as  such^  have  duties  and  rights  suit- 
able to  the  relations  they  sustain  by  the  will  of 
God.  Masters,  as  such,  have  no  rights  ;  for  their  \r 
relation,  as  holding  property  in  men,  is  contrary 
to  his  will.  Their  duty,  to  which  they  are 
bound  by  the  solemn  consideration  that  he  is 
their  Master,  is  practically  to  restore  to  their  ser- 
vants the  rights  which  he  confers  upon  all ;  for 
nothing  less  than  this  can  be  just  and  equal  in 
his  sight. 

This  view  discloses  the  harmony  of  the  whole 
Bible  concerning  slavery ;  and,  in  the  light  of  the 
two  Testaments,  the  institution  stands  as  a  le- 
galized violation  of  the  positive  will  of  Jehovah. 

festation  of  contempt  and  ill  temper,  or  undue  severity.  All. 
this  is  enforced  by  the  consideration  that  masters  have  a 
Master  in  heaven,  to  whom  they  are  responsible  for  their 
treatment  of  their  servants.  .  .  .  Believers  will  act  in  con- 
formity with  the  Gospel  in  this.  And  the  result  of  such 
obedience,  if  it  could  become  general,  would  be,  that  first  . 
the  evils  of  slavery,  and  then  slavery  itself,  would  pass  away 
naturally,  and  as  healthfully  as  children  cease  to  be  minors, 
Prof.  Hodge's  Commentary. 


24         THE  ERROR  AND  THE  DUTY 

We  now  condense  the  whole  argument  into 
its  briefest  form,  in  the  following  syllogisms. 

The  entire  right  of  men  to  hold  property  is 
given  by  the  Creator.  He  gives  to  American 
States  and  citizens  no  right  to  hold  property  in 
men.  Therefore  they  have  no  such  right. 

Again.  An  institution  is  sinful,  which,  with- 
out divine  warrant,  holds  property  in  men,  thus 
assuming  a  divine  prerogative,  and  subverting  a 
divine  institution.  American  slavery  does  this. 
Therefore  it  is  a  sinful  institution. 

The  purpose  of  this  tract  now  introduces  a 
new  series  of  topics.  The  argument  demands 
its  application ;  and  the  exigencies  of  the  times 
present  momentous  questions,  which  it  must 
answer. 

Hitherto  we  have  spoken  of  the  system  of 
slavery.  We  come  now  to  persons  connected 
with  it.  Because  the  system  is  sinful,  the  ques- 
tion immediately  occurs,  who  are  chargeable 
with  the  sin ;  for  there  is  no  sin  without  sinners. 
The  answer  is  obvious.  They  are  chargeable 
who  founded  it,  and  all  who  wilfully  implicate 
themselves  with  it.  Practically,  they  are  always 
chargeable  who  adopt  it  as  their  own  in  theory 
and  practice,  who  support  it  in  the  State,  conse- 
crate  it  in  the  Church,  and  labor  for  its  exten- 
sion. They  are  chargeable,  for  they  bring  heresy 


IN  REGARD   TO   SLAVERY.  25 

into  creeds,  unrighteousness  into  legislation,  and 
crime  into  popular  usage.  If  they  are  masters, 
they  stand  in  the  same  moral  relations  with  per- 
secutors and  tyrannical  rulers,  guilty  for  all  per- 
sonal injuries  they  inflict  under  color  of  unjust 
laws ;  and,  whether  masters  or  not,  they  are 
guilty  for  exerting  their  influence  to  sustain 
laws  which  set  aside  the  authority  of  God,  and 
withhold  the  rights  he  has  given.  Such  men 
are  accountable  to  God  and  to  society  for  de- 
liberate, organized,  aggressive  iniquity.  The 
"  organic  sin "  of  the  State  is  their  sin,  the  sin 
of  each  in  his  own  measure ;  for  they  are  the 
individuals  who  determine  the  acts  and  the 
character  of  the  slave-holding  State  as  such. 

But  are  there  no  exceptions  among  slave- 
holders ?  We  trust  there  are  many.  There  is  a 
plain  distinction  between  wicked  laws  and  the 
personal  acts  of  men  who  live  under  those  laws. 
Some  may  approve  them,  and  use  or  abuse  them 
to  the  injury  of  their  fellow  men.  Others  may 
disapprove  them,  and  refuse,  by  means  of  them, 
to  do  or  justify  a  wrong.  Christians  may  be- 
come in  a  legal  sense  owners  of  slaves,  while 
they  heartily  deprecate  the  system  of  oppression, 
while  they  are  ready  to  unite  with  good  men  in 
feasible  and  wise  measures  for  its  removal,  and 
while  they  obey  the  Christian  precepts  towards 


26         THE  ERROR  AND  THE  DUTY 

their  servants,  rendering  unto  them  what  is  just 
and  equal  to  men  and  brethren  in  Christ.  Such 
Christians  and  such  men  do  not  hold  slaves  in 
the  sense  which  God  forbids ;  and  they  cannot 
be  charged  with  the  wickedness  of  laws  by  which 
they,  as  well  as  the  slaves,  are  oppressed.  On 
their  estates  a  higher  law  than  that  of  slavery 
has  sway.  To  them  their  slaves,  though  legally 
property,  are  morally  and  actually  men.  The 
Bible  sustains  their  position.  They  are  the  Phil- 
emons  to  whom  Paul  gives  fellowship,  and  Ones- 
imus  returns,  not  as  a  slave,  but  a  brother  be- 
loved. In  the  trials  of  their  situation  they  should 
receive  the  cordial  sympathy  of  Christians  every- 
where. It  is,  indeed,  to  their  sound  convictions 
and  their  political  influence  the  world  must  look, 
in  part  at  least,  for  the  ultimate,  peaceful  extinc- 
tion of  American  slavery.  Without  them,  what 
would  the  South  become  ?  With  the  Scriptures 
in  our  hand  we  earnestly  say  to  them,  "  Throw 
the  weight  of  your  influence  against  unright- 
eous laws,  fulfil  to  servants  the  law  of  God,  and 
you  shall  have  the  sympathy  and  confidence  of 
good  men  everywhere.  Nay,  more ;  you,  with 
their  help,  and  they  with  your  help,  will  confine 
the  spreading  curse,  till,  with  God's  blessing,  it 
shall  cease ;  and  Christian  and  civilized  man 
shall  have  no  more  communion  with  it." 


IN   REGARD   TO    SLAVERY.  27 

These  discriminations  answer  certain  ecclesi- 
astical questions,  which  have  occasioned  much 
perplexity  and  discord.  When  properly  applied, 
they  take  away  whatever  support  a  wicked  insti- 
tution has  found  by  leaning  upon  the  Church;  at 
the  same  time  they  award  to  consistent  Chris- 
tians what  is  due  to  them  by  the  religion  of 
Jesus.  If  it  shall  be  said,  there  will  be  practical 
difficulty  in  applying  these  discriminations,  it  is 
sufficient  to  answer,  it  will  be  less  than  the  diffi- 
culty of  disregarding  them. 

The  question  now  arises,  what  can  be  done 
for  the  restriction  and  ultimate  extinction  of  sla- 
very as  it  is ;  for,  since  it  is  sinful,  Christianity 
and  patriotism  declare  it  should  be  restrained 
and  abolished. 

First.  The  extension  of  slavery  can  and  should 
be  prevented  by  the  Federal  Government.  The 
Scriptures  have  shown  us,  that  the  people  in  their 
sovereignty  have  not  the  right  to  create  a  slave 
State  or  a  slave.  Of  course,  the  legislators  and 
presidents,  who  receive  in  trust  the  power  which 
emanates  from  the  people,  have  no  such  right. 
If  the  Constitution  assumed  to  confer  this  power, 
it  would  be  the  first  national  duty  to  amend  that 
instrument  in  this  particular.  There  is  no  power 
on  earth  competent  to  set  aside  either  of  the 
Creator's  original  institutions  for  man.  But,  ac- 


28         THE  ERROR  AND  THE  DUTY 

cording  to  the  sound  and  established  principle  of 
strict  construction,  the  Constitution  as  it  is  does 
not  create  slavery,  or  even  acknowledge  its  exist- 
ence, except  by  inference.  Hence  there  is  no 
legal  objection  to  the  measure  which  religion  her- 
self ordains.  The  religious  and  the  political  obli- 
gations of  all  citizens  and  all  legislators  coincide 
to  protect,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Congress,  the 
right  of  every  man  to  be  exempt  from  the  condi- 
tion of  property,  and  to  enjoy  the  property  which 
he  honestly  earns.  Thus  the  question  concerning 
slavery  and  the  territories  is  morally  settled  by 
divine  authority;  and  to  this  no  real  objection  can 
be  made,  except  by  that  great  interest,  whose  ex- 
istence is  inherently  unrighteous  and  irreligious. 

Secondly.  In  the  slave  States,  legislation 
should  restore  to  the  enslaved  population  the 
primitive  rights  which  God  has  given  to  all  men, 
establishing  for  them,  on  humane  and  Christian 
principles,  such  relations  as  are  suitable  to  their 
condition  of  poverty,  ignorance,  and  depend- 
ence, and  are  adapted  to  secure  at  once  their 
improvement  and  the  general  welfare. 

This  is  the  logical  conclusion  to  be  derived 
from  the  premises.  As  the  central  wrong  of  sla- 
very consists  in  making  men  articles  of  property 
by  law,  the  rectification  is  to  lift  from  them  by 
law  the  curse  of  the  false  and  irreligious  doctrine, 


IN  REGARD   TO   SLAVERY.  29 

that  they  can  be  rightfully  held  as  property. 
Thus  the  axe  is  laid  to  the  root  of  the  tree. 

This  is  also  the  conclusion  to  which  we  are 
forced  by  other  moral  principles  bearing  on  the 
case.  For  men  to  receive  services  of  men  is 
right.  Accordingly,  the  New  Testament  allows 
masters  to  receive  services  of  those  who  are 
slaves  in  the  sense  of  human  law;  but  at  the 
same  time  the  sacred  book  requires  masters,  with 
all  who  employ  labor,  to  make  the  recompenses 
which  are  just  and  equal  towards  men ;  for  sla- 
very is  not  right;  and  legislators,  on  their  re- 
sponsibility to  the  Ruler  of  nations,  are  bound  to 
adjust  the  laws  in  harmony  with  the  first  princi- 
ples of  individual  and  moral  obligation. 

Furthermore,  this  is  the  only  practical  conclu- 
sion. By  inevitable  necessity,  the  slaves,  as  a 
body,  must  remain  on  the  soil  of  their  bondage. 
Only  exceptional  cases  of  removal  can  occur. 
They  are  the  laborers  of  the  South ;  and  no  State 
will,  or  can,  or  is  bound,  to  remove  its  laborers. 
It  is  simply  bound  to  protect  and  treat  them  with 
Christian  equity  and  kindness.  Banishment  of 
them  would  be  injustice  and  cruelty,  violating 
perhaps  no  less  than  restoring  divine  rights. 
Moreover,  no  practicable  means  of  removing  them 
have  ever  been  seriously  proposed ;  and,  till  they 
shall  be,  the  point  needs  no  discussion. 


30         THE  ERROR  AND  THE  DUTY 

But  the  question  may  be  raised,  "  Are  the  slaves 
to  endure  their  present  wrongs  until  the  laws 
shall  be  thus  renewed,  or  perhaps  forever  ?"  We 
reply,  in  showing  how  slave-holders  can  cease 
from  guilty  connection  with  slavery;  we  have 
also  shown  how  the  situation  of  the  slaves  be- 
comes one  of  practical  righteousness,  before  the 
laws  can  be  readjusted ;  and  for  this  great  obli- 
gation of  the  body  politic,  sufficient  time  must 
be  allowed.  Moral  principles  do  not  exact 
natural  impossibilities.  The  elevation  of  op- 
pressed millions  can  be  accomplished  only  in 
harmony  with  great  natural  and  social,  as  well 
as  ethical  laws,  which  the  wisdom  of  God  has 
ordained. 

It  remains  therefore,  that,  for  a  period  of  which 
no  man  can  see  the  end,  the  slaves  must,  in  most 
cases,  dwell  within  the  present  boundaries ;  but 
it  is  incumbent  on  the  citizens  and  legislators 
of  the  South  to  institute  immediate  measures  for 
restoring  to  them  the  inviolable  rights  of  men. 
So  long  as  they  continue,  by  the  necessities  of  the 
case,  in  the  relation  of  servants  and  laborers,  mas- 
ters should  deal  with  them  according  to  the  rules 
of  humane  and  Christian  equity,  paying  to  them 
in  suitable  ways  their  just  earnings,  holding  sa- 
cred their  family  ties,  and  securing  to  them  the 
privileges  of  education  and  religion.  Meanwhile, 


IN   REGARD   TO    SLAVERY.  31 

the  legislatures  of  the  several  States,  by  wise 
enactments,  should  cooperate  with  masters  in 
training  their  servile  population  for  the  position 
which  the  Creator  designed  for  men. 

When  these  things  shall  come  to  pass,  a  con- 
sideration, in  which  many  good  men  have  sought 
relief  in  regard  to  slavery,  will  have  multiplied 
force.  The  providential  wisdom  of  God,  in 
bringing  millions  of  the  children  of  Africa  from  a 
land  of  pagan  darkness  and  violence  to  a  land  of 
freedom  and  Christianity,  will  shine  with  new 
lustre,  when  they  shall  receive  from  American 
hands,  together  with  true  religion,  every  divine 
right,  and  shall  thus  be  qualified  and  enabled  to 
convey  to  the  dark  habitations  of  their  fathers 
the  infinite  blessings  of  enlightened  liberty  and 
of  the  gospel  of  eternal  salvation. 

These  things  are  practicable.  So  long  as 
"righteousness  exalteth  a  nation,"  a  great,  free, 
and  Christian  people  can  do  what  they  should 
do ;  and  thus  only  can  they  secure,  under  the  di- 
vine blessing,  their  own  highest  prosperity  and 
glory.  To  prove  this  would  be  simply  to  repeat 
the  familiar  facts  which  exhibit  the  legitimate  ef- 
fects of  slavery  on  general  intelligence,  enterprise, 
and  virtue. 

But  what  shall  produce  the  true  and  wide 
spread  public  sentiment,  which  is  indispensable 
to  usher  in  so  radical  a  change  in  the  laws  and 


32         THE  ERROR  AND  THE  DUTY 

institutions  of  proud  and  powerful  States  ?  Truth 
must  accomplish  this  great  work — THE  TRUTH 
that  our  Creator  does  not  place  those  who  bear 
his  image  in  bondage  to  their  fellow  men  as 
property,  but  invests  them  with  a  common  and 
inviolable  right  of  dominion  over  inferior  things. 
The  vivid  light  which  this  truth  sheds  on  the 
social  relations  of  men  has  been  extinguished  at 
the  South ;  and  it  has  been  dimmed  at  the 
North.  In  every  right  way  and  in  every  place, 
therefore,  it  should  be  made  to  shine  again  unob- 
scured.  Expounders  should  bring  it  forth  from 
the  Holy  Oracles ;  for  Jehovah  has  hallowed  it 
there,  and  made  it  equal  in  authority  with  the 
Sabbath.  The  press  should  publish  it ;  for  it  is 
the  function  of  the  press  to  convey  unceasingly 
to  the  public  mind  whatever  will  establish  and 
crown  the  public  integrity  and  welfare.  All  men 
should  seal  it  in  their  hearts  ;  for  it  is  the  divine 
rule  and  bond  of  brotherhood  in  the  universal 
dominion.  It  surrounds  them  with  protected 
families,  and  builds  their  safe  firesides  and  their 
altars  of  worship. 

The  question  arises  here,  can  general  agree- 
ment be  expected  in  regard  to  this  primary  truth, 
and  measures  which  legitimately  proceed  from 
it.  It  is  to  be  supposed  there  are  men  in  whose 
hearts  there  is  no  fear  of  God  or  love  of  their 
fellow  beings.  With  such  men  these  views 


IN   REGARD   TO    SLAVERY.  33 

may  be  powerless ;  but  for  men  of  Christian 
principle,  we  are  confident  they  show  a  common 
foundation  for  united  sentiments  and  efforts. 

There  is  now  a  general,  practical,  vital  con- 
sent that  government  and  society  should  respect 
the  divine  institutions  of  the  family  and  the 
Sabbath.  Beneath  all  superficial  strifes  and  ir- 
relevant issues,  there  is  the  same  sure  ground 
for  a  living  and  earnest  agreement,  that  govern- 
ment and  society  should  respect  the  equal  and 
coeval  institution  of  the  right  of  property. 

Christian  and  conservative  men  can  unite  in 
the  proposed  measures  and  the  truth  which  ap- 
points them ;  for  they  desire  to  preserve  only 
what  is  right.  Christian  and  progressive  men 
can  unite  in  them  ;  for  they  desire  to  abolish 
only  what  is  wrong.  Politics  can  approve  them  ; 
for  they  are  constitutional  and  patriotic.  Phi- 
lanthropy can  be  satisfied  with  them ;  for  they 
promise  all  that  in  the  nature  of  the  case  can 
be  promised  for  the  early  relief  of  the  slaves.  Re- 
ligion sanctions  them ;  for  they  restore  her  own 
institutions.  Good  men  of  the  South  can  unite 
in  them  with  those  of  the  North ;  for  they  have 
equal  authority  North  and  South.  They  proffer 
only  that  moral  aid  which  great  communities, 
sharing  common  interests  and  responsibilities, 
should  render  and  receive  with  intimate  and 
3 


34        THE  ERROR  AND  THE  DUTY 

cordial  confidence.  They  honor  the  sovereignty 
of  proud  and  jealous  States ;  for  each  of  them, 
exercising  the  power  which  springs  from  its  own 
people  in  its  own  way,  will  discharge  its  politi- 
cal obligations  to  all  within  its  boundaries. 

A  few  years  or  even  months  of  combined 
efforts  will  suffice  to  convey  this  truth  with  vital 
energy  to  millions  of  minds  and  hearts.  In  due 
time  it  will  manifest  its  efficacy  in  the  public 
sentiment  and  public  policy.  We  trust  in  its 
power.  It  is  invincible ;  it  will  be  victorious ; 
for  it  is  from  God.  Its  absence  from  the  popu- 
lar and  legislative  mind  well  explains  many  of 
the  evils  that  have  been  precipitated  upon  the 
nation.  Its  future  prevalence,  under  divine 
mercy,  will  arrest  the  progress  of  events  which 
would  be,  as  we  judge,  not  remedy,  but  retribu- 
tive destruction,  on  account  of  slavery. 

This  leads  us  to  the  final  question.  Are  the 
principles  and  measures  advocated  in  this  tract 
or  their  equivalents,  with  the  contemplated  re- 
sult, essential  to  the  welfare  of  our  country? 
We  are  compelled  to  believe  so. 

We  present,  for  the  consideration  of  citizens 
and  statesmen,  this  fact.  In  harmony  with  that 
law  of  fitness  which  pervades  the  Creator's  works, 
all  men  are  constituted  with  a  nature  correspond- 
ing with  the  dominion  they  have  received.  They 


IN   REGARD    TO    SLAVERY.  35 

feel  that  they  have  a  right  to  hold  property,  and 
should  not  be  held  as  property.  Slaves  feel  this. 
Masters  often  show  that  they  feel  it.  They  who 
make  laws  for  slavery,  North  and  South,  show 
that  they  feel  it.  The  little  property  which 
slaves  are  often  allowed  to  possess,  so  far  from 
furnishing  apology  for  slavery,  is  an  unwitting 
tribute  to  the  living  principle  that  destroys  the 
system.  Here  is  a  philosophical  demonstration 
that  slavery  cannot  stand  in  perpetuity.  This 
vital  element  in  human  nature,  to  which  a  divine 
institution  itself  is  but  an  index,  is  subterranean 
fire  beneath  the  pyramid  of  oppression.  Though 
long  crushed  and  silent,  it  will  not  always  sleep. 
Do  men  expect  to  control  forever,  by  law  and 
force,  that  sense  of  rights  which  burns  inextin- 
guishable in  every  human  breast,  which  God 
himself  kindled  in  Eden  ?  As  well  pile  rocks 
on  volcanoes  to  suppress  earthquakes. 

"  Vital  in  every  part, 
It  can  but  by  annihilating  die." 

In  this  light,  it  is  no  prediction  to  say,  if  slavery 
survives  to  consummate  its  own  results  it  will 
destroy  our  country. 

The  great  political  and  religious  problem  of 
the  slave-holding  States,  on  which  their  welfare 
really  depends,  is  not,  how  shall  we  extend  sla- 


36         THE  ERROR  AND  THE  DUTY 

very  ?  but,  how  shall  we  lay  legal  foundation  for 
the  rights  of  our  servile  population  as  men  ?  Un- 
less it  shall  be  anticipated  and  prevented,  by  re- 
storing to  them  the  dominion  which  the  Creator 
bestowed,  a  day  is  as  sure  to  come  on  natural 
principles  as  the  sun  to  rise,  when  the  masses  of 
human  property  will  assert  for  themselves  the  in- 
destructible rights  of  their  being.  Generations 
may  not  see  it ;  but  woe  betides  the  States  im- 
plicated in  this  oppression,  when  that  day  shall 
dawn ;  and  the  longer  it  tarries  the  greater  the 
woe. 

To  our  mind,  the  statesmen  are  infatuated  who 
do  not  in  their  policy  regard  this  universal  sense 
of  rights.  It  is  this  which  is  now  making  so  bit- 
ter conflict  on  the  prairies  of  Kansas.  It  will 
always  make  conflict,  till  slavery  expires. 

In  connection  with  the  general  welfare,  there  is 
another  consideration,  which  we  solemnly  urge 
upon  every  man  who  respects  the  Bible.  It  is 
the  displeasure  of  God  for  slavery.  He  gave  the 
rights  which  it  denies ;  and  he  will  assuredly 
vindicate  his  own  institutions.  It  would  contra- 
dict his  word  and  history,  which  is  but  the  story 
of  his  providence,  to  suppose  that  he  will  perpet- 
ually allow  myriads  of  men,  in  this  land  of  light, 
to  hold  as  property  other  myriads  and  even  mill- 
ions of  their  fellow  men  and  fellow  Christians, 


IN  REGARD   TO   SLAVERY.  37 

whom  he  has  endowed,  as  bearing  his  own  im- 
age, with  equal  rights.  With  Jefferson  we  have 
reason  to  tremble  for  our  country,  when  we  be- 
hold her  support  of  slavery  and  remember  that 
God  is  just.  France  abolished  the  Sabbath;  and 
thrones  have  gone  down  in  blood.  America 
may  abolish  another  divine  institution ;  and  for 
this  her  proud  States  may  be  convulsed.  The 
previous  topic  shows,  indeed,  that  God  has  so 
constituted  the  social  elements,  of  this  world,  that 
a  great  wrong,  like  slavery,  ultimately  provides 
for  its  own  retribution.  The  oppressor  himself 
treasures  up  the  vials  of  wrath  for  Him  who  tak- 
eth  vengeance. 

In  view  of  all  the  considerations  which  have 
now  passed  before  our  minds,  is  it  too  much  to 
believe,  that  the  diffusion  of  kindly  and  scriptu- 
ral sentiments,  with  the  blessing  of  heaven  pro- 
ducing general  agreement  in  principles  and 
measures,  must  be  the  means  of  our  country's 
salvation  from  the  guilt  and  perils  of  slavery  ? 
If  it  is  not  extended,  misguided,  infatuated  men 
may,  indeed,  threaten  to  dissolve  the  Union.  Still 
we  fear  that  extension  most ;  for  religion  teaches  \ 
us  to  fear  God  more  than  man.  It  allows  us  but 
this  alternative,  to  keep  his  commandments,  and 
trust  that  he  will  make  the  wrath  of  man  to 
praise  him.  We  hold  that  national  righteous- 


38       THE  ERROR  AND  THE  DUTY,  ETC. 

ness  in  his  sight,  "  first  pure,  then  peaceable,"  is 
better  and  safer  than  union  and  slavery  with  his 
frown.  Let  justice  be  done,  and  the  heavens 
will  not  fall. 

Whatever  purposes  God  may  conceal  in  the 
cloudy  future,  present  duties  are  ours.  He  seals 
them  in  his  word.  Notwithstanding  all  the  heats 
and  perversions  of  parties  and  interests,  we  trust 
there  will  yet  be  a  single  voice  of  our  nation's 
good  men.  Citizens  will  speak  the  truth,  legis- 
lators will  enact  the  truth,  churches  will  hallow 
the  truth,  vital  to  civilization  and  Christianity, 
that,  by  Jehovah's  will,  man  is  not  the  property  of 
man.  Then,  under  the  benediction  of  our  Father 
in  heaven,  all  his  children  in  mutual  protection 
and  benevolence  will  enjoy  their  property,  their 
homes,  and  their  Sabbath ;  and  he  will  more 
richly  bless  the  land  of  the  free  and  the  just. 


FRIENDLY    LETTERS 


TO 


A  CHRISTIAN  SLAVEHOLDER. 


KEY.  A.  C.  BALDWIN. 

(39) 


LETTER    I. 

INTRODUCTION.  —  SOUTHERN  COURTESY  AND  HOSPITALITY.  — 
CHARACTERISTICS  OP  THE  SOUTH  AND  NORTH.  —  NO  ESSENTIAL 
DIFFERENCE  AT  HEART.  —  THEY  SHOULD  UNDERSTAND  EACH 
OTHER  BETTER.  —  A  FREE  INTERCHANGE  OF  SENTIMENT  DE- 
SIRABLE. —  SINCERE  PATRIOTISM  AND  PIETY  COMMON  TO 

BOTH.  —  THESE  AN  EFFECTUAL  SAFEGUARD  TO  OUR  UNION 
AND  GOOD-FELLOWSHIP. 

MY  DEAR  CHRISTIAN  BROTHER, —  I  embrace 
the  first  moment  at  my  command  since  leaving 
your  pleasant  home,  to  express  the  gratification 
afforded  me  by  my  recent  visit  to  the  "  Sunny 
South."  The  kind  hospitality  and  polite  atten- 
tions shown  me  by  yourself  and  other  Christian 
friends,  during  my  recent  interesting  sojourn 
with  you,  will  ever  be  gratefully  remembered. 
I  had  previously  heard  "  by  the  hearing  of  the 
ear"  of  the  open,  frank  warm-heartedness  and 
generous  impulses  of  southern  people,  but  now  I 
can  fully  appreciate  them.  The  lessons  taught 
us  by  experience,  whether  they  be  pleasant  or 
painful,  are  the  most  profitable,  and  are  most 

(41) 


42  FKIENDLY   LETTERS 

deeply  engraven  upon  the  memory.  If  there  are 
any  persons  who  think  or  speak  lightly  of  the 
reputed  complaisance  and  Christian  courtesy  of 
those  who  live  south  of  "  Mason  and  Dixon's 
line,"  I  have  only  to  say  to  them,  —  go  and  make 
the  acquaintance  of  those  families  which  give  the 
tone  and  character  to  society  there,  and  enjoy 
the  hospitalities  which  they  almost  force  upon 
you  with  so  much  politeness  and  delicacy  as  to 
make  you  feel  that  by  sharing  them  you  are 
conferring  rather  than  receiving  a  favor,  and 
your  skepticism  on  this  point  will  be  .happily 
and  effectually  removed. 

You  will  not  understand  me,  my  dear  sir,  as 
implying  that  our  southern  brethren  have  really 
more  heart  than  we  at  the  North,  although  there 
seems  to  be  " primd  facie"  evidence  in  your 
favor;  at  least,  so  far  as  polite  and  generous 
attention  to  strangers  is  concerned.  In  this  last 
particular,  you  are  constantly  teaching  us  im- 
portant lessons.  Still,  I  contend  that  the  Nor- 
therner has  as  large  and  generous  a  soul,  when 
you  get  at  it,  as  anybody.  We  have  hearts 
which  beat  warm  and  true,  but  our  cautious 
habits  and  constitutional  temperament  (phleg- 
matic sometimes)  conceal  them  from  view; 
whereas  you  carry  yours  throbbing  with  gen- 
erous emotions  in  your  hands,  exposed  to  the 


TO   A   CHRISTIAN   SLAVEHOLDER.  43 

gaze  of  everybody.  The  Southron  is  artless 
and  impulsive,  as  well  as  noble ;  the  Northerner 
is  no  less  noble,  but  having  been  taught  more 
frequently  the  doctrine  of  "  expediency  "  than  his 
southern  brother,  he  stops  and  "  calculates " 
when,  and  in  what  circumstances,  it  is  best  to 
exhibit  his  whole  character.  In  both  cases,  the 
pure  gold  is  there ;  but  in  the  former  it  lies  upon 
the  surface  or  in  the  alluvial,  while  in  the  latter 
it  is  often  imbedded  deep  in  the  quartz-rock ;  — 
it  requires  some  labor  to  get  it  out,  but  the  ulti- 
mate yield  is  most  rich  and  abundant. 

It  is  very  desirable  that  a  greater  degree  of 
social  intercourse  be  kept  up  between  the  North 
and  South.  We  are  brethren  of  one  great 
family,  and  there  is  no  good  reason  why  this 
family  should  not  be  a  united  and  happy  one. 
To  a  considerable  extent  it  is  so.  It  is  true  we 
do  not  all  think  alike  on  every  subject,  and 
some  of  these  subjects  are  of  vast  importance, 
and  intimately  connected  with  our  prosperity 
and  happiness.  We  need  to  understand  each 
other  better,  and  to  this  end  there  should  be 
more  intimacy,  and  a  frequent  and  free  inter- 
change of  views  ;  —  not  for  strife  and  debate,  but 
for  mutual  edification  and  enlightenment.  There 
was  probably  never  a  family  of  brothers,  however 
strong  their  love  for  each  other,  whose  views 


44  FRIENDLY   LETTERS 

of  domestic  policy  were  exactly  alike ;  but  there 
need  be  no  lack  of  fraternal  confidence  and  har- 
mony for  all  that.  There  are  certain  great 
fundamental  principles  which  underlie  every 
thing  else,  and  form  the  basis  of  the  family 
compact.  These  principles  are  filial  reverence, 
fraternal  affection,  love  for  home,  and  a  watchful 
jealousy  of  aught  that  can  in  the  least  interfere 
with  the  happiness  or  reputation  of  their  beloved 
family  circle.  Falling  back  upon  these  principles 
to  preserve  good-will  and  harmony,  they  are  not 
in  the  least  afraid  to  discuss  those  topics  on 
which  there  is  an  honest  difference  of  opinion; 
on  the  contrary,  they  take  pleasure  in  doing  so, 
for  the  result  is  a  strengthening  of  the  ties  which 
bind  them  to  each  other,  and  a  modification  and 
partial  blending  of  opinions  that  seemed  antag- 
onistic. 

Thus  it  should  be  in  our  great  political 
and  religious  brotherhood.  The  North  and 
South  have  each  their  peculiar  views  of  what 
pertains  to  their  own  interests,  and  the  interests 
of  the  great  family  of  the  Republic.  But  do  not 
let  us  stand  at  a  distance  and  look  at  each  other 
with  an  eye  of  jealousy  because  of  these  differ- 
ences. Surely  we  can  meet  as  fellow-citizens, 
and  discuss  matters  of  common  interest,  and  the 


TO   A   CHRISTIAN   SLAVEHOLDER.  45 

interests  of  common  'humanity,  without  losing 
our  temper  or  engendering  any  ill  feeling  or  fam- 
ily discord. 

It  is  affirmed  by  some,  that  there  are  certain 
subjects,  at  least  one,  of  so  peculiar  and  delicate 
a  nature  as  to  forbid  discussion,  lest  the  result 
should  be  heart-burnings,  alienation,  and  perhaps 
disunion  in  our  happy  fraternity.  I  cannot  for  a 
moment  admit  the  sentiment.  It  is  an  ungener- 
ous reflection  upon  the  courtesy,  Christian  can- 
dor, piety,  and  good-sense,  both  of  the  North  and 
South.  I  hold  that  good  citizens  and  good 
Christians  can,  if  they  will,  discuss  any  subject 
without  giving  the  least  occasion  for  offence,  or 
endangering  that  compact  which  so  happily 
binds  us  together.  As  it  is  in  the  family  circle, 
there  are  certain  great  principles  most  dear  to  us 
all,  on  which  we  can  fall  back,  and  which,  if  we 
are  true  to  ourselves  and  to  them,  will  prove  effi- 
cient safeguards  to  our  temper  and  good-fellow- 
ship. The  first  of  these  is  Patriotism.  We 
have  a  common  country,  and  we  love  it,  and  we 
love  each  other  for  our  country's  sake.  We  are 
children  of  a  common  mother,  whose  kind  arms 
have  encircled  us,  and  whose  bosom  has  nour- 
ished us  bounteously  and  with  impartiality,  and 
God  forbid,  that,  as  wayward,  ungrateful  children, 


46  FRIENDLY   LETTERS 

we  should  wring  her  maternal  heart  with  an- 
guish by  our  unfraternal  conduct  toward  each 
other.  We  shall  not  do  it,  —  either  at  the  North 
or  at  the  South.  We  are  true  patriots,  and  in 
our  very  differences,  love  of  country  come  in  as 
an  important  element  to  shape  and  modify  our 
opinions ;  and  while  we  may  be  adopting  differ- 
ent theories,  we  are  conscientiously  seeking  the 
same  end,  namely,  the  greatest  good  of  our  be- 
loved country. 

The  second  is  piety.  We  love  our  country 
well,  but  we  love  our  Saviour  more,  and  for  his 
sake  we  will  love  and  treat  each  other  as  brethren, 
and  not  fall  out  by  the  way  because  we  may  not 
see  through  the  same  optic-glasses.  We  will 
cheerfully  hear  what  each  has  to  say  on  what- 
ever pertains  to  Christian  morals  and  practice. 
There  are  thousands  of  sincere,  warm-hearted 
Christians,  whose  love  to  Christ  raises  them 
immeasurably  above  sectionalism  and  prejudice, 
and  who  daily  inquire,  "  what  is  truth  ? "  and 
"  what  is  duty  ?  "  and  they  entertain  that  "  char- 
ity "  which  "  suffereth  long  and  is  kind  ;  is  not 
easily  provoked,  thinketh  no  evil,  rejoiceth  not  in 
iniquity,  but  rejoiceth  in  the  truth ;  beareth  all 
things,  believeth  all  things,  hopeth  all  things,  en- 
dureth  all  things ; "  and  "  never  faileth."  When 
this  love  is  in  exercise,  Christian  brethren  may 


TO   A   CHRISTIAN   SLAVEHOLDER.  47 

open  their  hearts  freely  to  each  other  on  any 
subject,  whether  it  be  "  for  doctrine,  or  reproof, 
or  for  instruction  in  righteousness." 

Whatever  may  be  true  of  others,  I  hope  that 
you  and  I  will  be  able  to  demonstrate  to  the 
world,  that,  although  one  of  us  lives  at  the  North 
and  the  other  at  the  South,  yet  we  can  commu- 
nicate with  each  other  unreservedly  on  an  almost 
interdicted  topic,  with  mutual  kind  feelings,  if 
not  to  edification. 

Respectfully  and  fraternally, 

Yours,  &c. 


LETTER    II. 

A  DIFFICULT  AND  DELICATE  SUBJECT  PROPOSED.  —  AGITATION  OP 
IT  UNAVOIDABLE.  —  CHRISTIANS  NORTH  AND  SOUTH  SHOULD 
GIVE  THE  DISCUSSION  OF  IT  A  RIGHT  DIRECTION.  —  WE  ARE  ALL 
INTERESTED  IN  THE  ISSUE.  —  NORTHERN  DISCLAIMERS. 

MY  DEAR  CHRISTIAN  BROTHER,  —  In  my  last 
I  intimated  that  I  hoped  you  and  I,  by  our  cor- 
respondence, would  be  able  to  furnish  the  world 
a  practical  illustration  of  good-nature  and  kind 
feeling  in  the  discussion  of  a  subject  that  has 
been  a  fruitful  source  of  trouble  and  unchristian 
invective.  You  have  already  anticipated  my 
theme  —  it  is  DOMESTIC  SLAVERY.  It  must  be 
confessed  that  this  is  the  most  difficult  and  deli- 
cate of  all  topics  to  be  agitated  by  a  Northerner 
and  a  Southerner,  and  yet  I  have  the  fullest  con- 
fidence that  neither  of  us  will  give  or  take  of- 
fence. I  need  offer  you  no  apology  for  calling 
your  attention  to  this  subject  at  the  present  time. 
Not  only  is  it  a  theme  of  vast  importance  in 
itself,  involving,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  in- 

(48) 


FRIENDLY   LETTERS,   ETC.  49 

terests  most  dear  to  you  and  to  me,  and  to  every 
one  who  has  at  heart  the  welfare  of  his  country 
and  his  race,  but  it  is  a  subject  that  must  be  dis- 
cussed, —  there  is  no  avoiding  it,  however  much 
you  or  I  or  other  individuals  may  desire  it.  It 
has  come  before  the  public  mind  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  peremptorily  to  demand  the  attention  of 
every  Christian  and  every  patriot.  Whether  we 
approve  or  deprecate  the  peculiar  causes  that 
have  made  this  topic  so  prominent  in  our  coun- 
try, both  North  and  South,  we  have  to  take  things 
as  they  are,  and  turn  them  to  the  best  possible 
account.  Politicians  and  demagogues  are  all 
discussing  American  slavery,  and  will  continue 
to  do  so  for  the  purpose  of  forwarding  their  own 
favorite  schemes ;  and  any  attempt  to  silence 
them  would  be  as  futile  as  an  effort  to  ar- 
rest the  gulf-stream  in  its  course.  It  remains 
only  for  brethren,  both  at  the  South  and 
North,  to  take  up  the  subject  as  we  find  it 
brought  to  our  hands  in  the  inscrutable  provi- 
dence of  God,  and,  under  the  guidance  of  his 
Spirit,  given  in  answer  to  our  prayers,  take  a 
truly  Christian  view  of  some  of  its  leading  feat- 
ures, and  then  inquire,  What  is  duty  ?  I  think 
you  will  not  claim,  with  some  of  your  southern 
friends,  that  slavery  is  a  subject  with  which  we  at 
the  North  "  have  nothing  to  do."  As  patriots,  we 
4 


50  FRIENDLY   LETTERS 

have  something  to  do  with  every  thing  that  af- 
fects the  interests  of  our  common  country ;  and 
as  Christians,  we  sustain  responsibilities  which 
we  cannot  shake  off  toward  all  our  brethren  of 
the  human  family,  whether  it  be  at  the  North  or 
South  —  whether  they  be  bond  or  free.  u  Have 
we  not  all  one  Father?  Hath  not  one  God 
created  us  ?  "  "  We  are  many  members,  but  one 
body,  and  whether  one  member  suffer  all  the 
members  suffer  with  it ;  or  one  member  be  hon- 
ored, all  the  members  rejoice  with  it." 

Your  candor  will  not  impute  to  me  any  un- 
kind or  improper  motive  in  entering  upon  this 
discussion  ;  and  you  will  permit  me,  in  the  outset, 
to  enter  a  few  disclaimers,  in  order  that  you  may 
be  the  better  able  to  appreciate  what  I  have  to 
say. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  not  my  design  to  throw 
down  the  glove  for  the  purpose  of  enlisting  you, 
or  any  of  your  friends,  in  a  controversy;  this 
would  be  an  unpleasant  and  profitless  undertak- 
ing. 

Nor  is  it  to  advocate  the  doctrine,  that  sustain- 
ing the  legal  relation  of  master  to  a  slave  for  a 
longer  or  shorter  time  is  in  all  possible  cases  sin. 
I  will  admit  that  there  may  be  circumstances  in 
which  the  relation  may  subsist  without  any 
moral  delinquency  whatever ;  as,  for  instance, 


TO    A    CHRISTIAN   SLAVEHOLDER.  51 

persons  may  become  slaveholders  in  the  eye  of 
the  law  without  their  own  consent,  as  by  heir- 
ship  ;  they  sometimes  become  so  voluntarily  to 
befriend  a  fellow-creature  in  distress,  to  prevent 
his  being  sold  away  from  his  wife  and  family ; 
persons  sometimes  purchase  slaves  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  emancipating  them.  In  these,  and 
other  circumstances  which  might  be  mentioned, 
no  reasonable  man  either  North  or  South  would 
ever  think  of  pronouncing  the  relation  a  sinful 
one. 

Nor  is  it  my  design  to  question  the  conscien- 
tiousness or  piety  of  all  slaveholders  at  the  South, 
both  among  the  laity  and  clergy.  Whoever 
makes  the  sweeping  assertion,  that  "no  slave- 
holder can  be  a  child  of  God,"  gives  fearful 
evidence  that  he  himself  is  deficient  in  that 
"  charity  "  which  "  hopeth  all  things."  There  is 
an  obvious  distinction  between  those  who  hold 
slaves  for  merely  selfish  purposes  and  regard 
them  as  chattels,  and  those  who  repudiate  this 
system,  and  regard  them  as  men  having  in  com- 
mon with  themselves  human  rights,  and  would 
gladly  emancipate  them  were  thore  not  legal 
obstacles,  and  could  they  do  it  consistently  with 
their  welfare,  temporal  and  eternal. 

Nor  is  it  my  purpose  to  advocate  immediate, 
universal,  unconditional  emancipation  without 


52  FRIENDLY  LETTERS 

regard  to  circumstances.  This  doctrine  is  not 
held  by  the  great  mass  of  northern  Christians. 
There  are,  no  doubt,  some  cases  where  imme- 
diate emancipation  would  inflict  sad  calamities, 
both  upon  the  slaves  themselves  and  the  com- 
munity. The  opinions  of  northern  men  have 
often  been  misunderstood  and  misrepresented 
on  this  subject.  The  ground  that  calm,  reflect- 
ing opponents  of  slavery  take,  is,  that  slave- 
holders should  at  once  cease  in  their  own  minds 
to  regard  their  slaves  as  chattels  to  be  bought 
and  sold  and  worked  for  mere  profit,  and  that 
they  should  take  immediate  measures  for  the 
full  emancipation  of  every  one,  as  soon  as  may 
be  consistent  with  his  greatest  good,  and  that  of 
the  community  in  which  he  lives. 

This,  it  is  true,  is  virtually  immediate  eman- 
cipation ;  for  it  is  at  once  giving  up  the  chattel 
principle,  and  no  longer  regarding  servants  as 
property  to  be  bought  and  sold.  It  is  to  act  on 
the  Christian  principle  of  impartial  love,  doing 
to  them  and  with  them,  as,  in  a  change  of  cir- 
cumstances, we  would  have  them  do  to  and 
with  us.  This  does  immediately  abolish,  as  it 
should  do,  the  main  thing  in  slavery,  and  brings 
those  who  are  now  bondmen  into  the  common 
brotherhood  of  human  beings,  to  be  treated,  not 
as  chattels  and  brutes,  but  on  Christian  princi- 


TO   A   CHRISTIAN    SLAVEHOLDER.  53 

pies,  according  to  the  exigencies  of  their  condi- 
tion as  ignorant,  degraded,  and  dependent 
human  beings,  "endowed,  however,  by  their 
Creator  with  certain  inalienable  rights,  among 
which  are  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happi- 
ness," which  rights  should  be  acknowle  dged.  and 
with  the  least  possible  delay  be  granted. 

'  Nor  is  it  my  design  to  reproach  my  southern 
brethren  as  being  to  blame  for  the  origin  of 
slavery  in  these  United  States.  Slavery  was 
introduced  into  this  country  by  our  fathers,  who 
have  long  been  sleeping  in  their  graves,  and  the 
North,  if  they  did  not  as  extensively,  yet  did  as 
truly,  and  in  many  cases  did  as  heartily,  par-  \ 
ticipate  in  it,  as  the  South ;  so  that,  in  respect  to 
the  origin  of  American  slavery,  we  have  not  a 
word  to  say,  nor  a  stone  to  cast.  And  besides, 
our  mother  country  must  come  in  and  share 
with  our  fathers  to  no  small  extent  in  the  wrong 
of  introducing  domestic  slavery  to  these  colonies. 
Happily,  as  we  think,  slavery  was  virtually  abol- 
ished at  the  North  by  our  ancestors  of  a  pre- 
ceding generation ;  but  for  their  act  we  are  en- 
titled to  no  credit.  Your  ancestors  omitted  to 
do  this  ;  but  for  their  omission  you  are  deserving  I 
of  no  blame.  We  would  never  forget,  that 
slavery  was  entailed  upon  our  southern  brethren, 
and  for  this  entailment  they  are  no  more  respon- 


54  FRIENDLY   LETTERS,   ETC. 

sible  than  for  the  blood  that  circulates  in  their 
veins. 

If  you  will  be  so  kind  as  to  keep  these  dis- 
claimers in  mind,  I  think  you  will  better  under- 
stand and  appreciate  what  I  shall  hereafter  say 
on  the  subject.  With  the  kindest  wishes  for 
you  and  yours,  I  remain,  in  the  best  of  bonds, 
YOUR  CHRISTIAN  BROTHER. 


LETTER    III. 

THE  REAL,  SUBJECT.  —  NOT  TO  BE  CONFOUNDED  WITH  ANCIEN1 
SERVITUDE.  —  NOR  TO  BE  JUDGED  OF  BY  ISOLATED  CASES. 
—  NORTHERN  MEN  COMPETENT  AS  OTHERS  TO  DETERMINE  ITS 
TRUE  CHARACTER.  —  SLAVERY  IGNORES  OUR  DECLARATION  OF 
INDEPENDENCE. — IS  INCONSISTENT  WITH  OUR  CONSTITUTION. 

MY  DEAR  FRIEND  AND  BROTHER,  —  I  propose 
in  this  and  subsequent  letters  to  take  a  brief,  can- 
did view  of  some  of  the  prominent  characteristics 
of  American  slavery.  I  speak  of  servitude,  not 
as  it  existed  in  patriarchal  times,  for  that  is 
essentially  a  distinct  matter.  While  it  had  some 
things  in  common  with  American  slavery,  there 
was  so  much  that  was  dissimilar  in  the  relation 
of  master  and  servant,  that  analogy  is  in  a  great 
measure  destroyed. 

Neither  do  I  speak  of  slavery  as  I  saw  it  de- 
veloped on  your  plantation,  and  on  those  of  your 
immediate  neighbors.  When  I  went  to  the 
South,  I  confess  I  went  with  strong  preposses- 
sions, (prejudices  if  you  choose  so  to  call  them,) 

(55) 


56  FRIENDLY   LETTERS 

against  the  "  peculiar  institution."  I  regarded  it 
an  evil,  and  only  an  evil.  But  while  my  general 
views  of  the  legitimate  workings  of  the  system 
remain  unchanged,  candor  compels  me  to  admit, 
that,  if  all  slaves  were  as  well  cared  for,  as  kindly 
treated,  as  well  instructed,  and  were  they  all  as 
contented  and  happy  as  yours ;  and,  especially, 
were  there  no  evils  incident  to  the  system  greater 
than  I  saw  with  you,  I  would  simply  divest 
slavery  of  its  odious  name,  and  it  would  virtually 
be  slavery  no  longer.  The  plantations  at  the 
South  would  then,  perhaps,  with  some  propriety 
be  denominated  communities  of  intelligent,  hap- 
py, Christian  peasants.  And  yet  it  is  slavery,  as  it 
really  takes  away  inalienable  rights.  Would  to 
God  that  slavery  as  it  exists  with  you  were  a  fair 
illustration  of  the  system.  But  alas !  it  is  not. 
Perhaps  you  may  say  that  "  it  is  impossible  for 
a  northern  man  to  speak  of  slavery  so  as  to  do  the 
subject  justice."  You  may  indeed  know  more 
and  better  than  we  do  about  the  state  and  con- 
dition of  the  slaves.  But  in  some  respects,  where 
great  principles  are  involved,  we  at  the  North  are 
more  competent  than  you,  for  our  judgment  is 
less  liable  to  be  biased  by  self-interest ;  and  in 
my  remarks  I  shall  confine  myself  chiefly  to 
those  points  on  which  a  northern  man  is  at  least 
as  well  qualified  to  speak  as  a  slaveholder. 


TO   A   CHRISTIAN    SLAVEHOLDER.  57 

What,  then,  are  some  of  the  prominent  charao 
teristics  of  American  slavery  as  a  system  ? 

FIRST,  Slavery  ignores  and  repudiates  the  foun- 
dation-stone on  which  rests  our  renowned  Decla- 
ration of  Independence.  That  document,  for 
more  than  three  fourths  of  a  century,  has  been 
the  boast  and  glory  of  America.  It  is  the  plat- 
form on  which  oar  noble  ancestors  planted  their 
feet,  with  a  consciousness  that  they  stood  on 
the  eternal  principles  of  truth  and  justice.  To 
maintain  these  principles,  relying  on  God  for 
aid,  they  pledged  to  each  other  "their  lives,  their 
fortunes,  and  their  sacred  honor."  Our  fathers 
knew  that  they  were  right,  and,  to  carry  out  the 
principles  embodied  in  this  Declaration,  many  of 
them  cheerfully  poured  out  their  heart's  blood  to 
defend  the  "  unalienable  rights  "  of  humanity. 

Now  let  us  turn  our  attention  to  the  founda- 
tion paragraph  of  this  memorable  Declaration ; — 
I  do  not  mean  in  that  general  way  in  which  it  is 
often  read,  but  minutely  and  particularly  ;  —  let 
us  calmly  look  at  it  in  its  full  import,  and  not 
shrink  back  and  avert  our  eyes  on  account  of  a 
foreboding  that  we  shall  be  led  to  conclusions 
which  we  would  be  glad  to  avoid. 

"  We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident;  —  that 
all  men  are  created  equal ;  that  they  are  endowed 
by  their  Creator  with  certain  unalienable  rights  j 


58  FRIENDLY   LETTERS 

that  among  these  are  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit 
of  happiness." 

These  significant  words  are  inscribed  upon  the 
scroll  of  our  nation's  history,  and  there  they 
will  remain  till  time  shall  be  no  longer.  They 
need  no  glossary  or  explanation.  He  who  runs 
may  read  them,  and  he  who  reads  can  understand 
them.  The  sentiment  they  embody  it  is  impos- 
sible to  mistake  ;  it  stands  out  in  bold  relief,  like 
the  sun  in  the  heavens.  It  is,  that  every  man 
has  received,  from  a  higher  than  earthly  power,  a 
*charter,  which  secures  to  him  the  unalienable 
right  of  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  hap- 
piness. It  is  impossible  for  the  most  ultra  advo- 
cate of  "  human  rights "  to  paraphrase  these 
words,  or  give  them  a  rendering  so  as  to  make 
them  support  his  dogmas  more  strongly  than 
they  now  do.  On  the  contrary,  he  would  only 
weaken  their  force  by  the  attempt. 

Now,  my  dear  brother,  I  would  candidly,  se- 
riously ask  you  —  I  would  ask  all  your  southern 
friends  —  I  would  ask  everybody,  Can  the  sen- 
timent of  that  Declaration  be  consistent  with 
American  slavery  ?  Are  not  slaves  men  ?  Do 
color  and  degradation  change  a  creature  of  God 
from  a  human  being  to  a  soulless  brute  ?  No ; 
our  southern  brethren  would  as  indignantly  re- 
pudiate this  infidel  view  as  we  at  the  North. 


TO   A   CHRISTIAN    SLAVEHOLDER.  59 

Now  if  a  slave  is  a  man,  he  has  received  from 
his  Creator  an  unalienable  right  to  liberty  if 
he  chooses  to  avail  himself  of  it,  or  else  the  first 
principle  laid  down  in  our  revered  Declaration 
of  Independence,  so  far  from  being  "  self  evident," 
is  in  fact  untrue,  and  ought  at  once  to  be  taken 
from  its  honored  position  in  the  archives  of  these 
United  States,  and  consigned  to  the  heaps  of 
rubbish  of  the  dark  ages. 

But  does  the  slave  enjoy  this  liberty?  or  is 
it  within  his  reach?  It  will  not  be  pretended. 
The  very  name  by  which  his  class  is  designated 
forbids  it.  The  term  free  slave  is  a  solecism. 
His  liberty  consists  in  the  freedom  to  do  as  he 
is  told  to  do,  or  suffer  punishment  for  his  dis- 
obedience, and  he  can  pursue  happiness  only  in 
accordance  with  the  will  of  his  master. 

There  is  the  same  incongruity  between  slavery 
and  that  clause  in  our  constitution  which  stip- 
ulates that  "  no  person  shall  be  deprived  of  life, 
liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law." 
Now,  my  brother,  does  it  not  require  considerable 
ingenuity  and  special  pleading  to  avoid  con- 
clusions to  which  unbiased  common  sense 
would  arrive  in  an  instant,  in  the  application  of 
these  declared  rights  to  persons  held  as  slaves  ? 
I  am  not  going  to  inflict  upon  you  a  disserta- 
tion, or  a  series  of  syllogisms  on  this  hackneyed 


60  FRIENDLY  LETTERS,  ETC. 

subject,  but  I  beg  that  you  and  your  friends  will 
calmly  look  again  at  what,  I  doubt  not,  you  have 
seen  before,  —  the  palpable  incongruity  between 
the  system  of  holding  persons  perpetually  in 
slavery  without  their  consent,  and  those  de- 
clared, self-evident,  heaven  bestowed,  unalienable 
rights  professedly  secured  to  all  men  in  these 
United  States  by  our  glorious  constitution. 
Said  that  great  statesman  and  patriot,  Henry 
Clay:  "We  present  to  the  world  the  sorry  spec- 
tacle of  a  nation  that  worships  Slavery  as  a 
household  goddess,  after  having  constituted  Lib- 
erty the  presiding  divinity  over  church  and 
state." 

Surely  something  must  be  out  of  joint  here. 
I  have  looked  again  and  again  at  this  matter,  I 
think  with  perfect  candor,  and  I  have  tried  to  the 
utmost  of  my  ability  to  reconcile  these  apparent 
inconsistencies,  but  I  cannot  do  it.  Can  you  ? 

Believe  me,  as  ever,  your  sincere  friend  and 
CHRISTIAN  BROTHER. 


LETTER    IV. 

SLAVERY  TRANSFORMS  MEN  TO  CHATTELS.  —  SOUTHERN  LAWS. — 
SLAVE-AUCTIONS.  —  MEN  PLACED  ON  A  LEVEL  WITH  BRUTES.  — 
NO  REDRESS  FOR  WRONGS.  —  IGNORANCE  PERPETUATED  BY 

LAW. 

MY  DEAR  CHRISTIAN  FRIEND,  —  A  second 
characteristic  of  American  slavery  is,  It  regards 
human  beings,  declared  to  be  in  the  "  image  of 
God,"  as  "  chattels,"  —  things  or  articles  of  mer- 
chandise. "  Slaves,"  say  the  laws  of  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia,  "  shall  be  deemed,  sold, 
taken,  reputed,  and  adjudged  in  law  to  be 
chattels  personal  in  the  hands  of  their  owners 
and.  possessors,  and  their  executors,  administra- 
tors and  assigns,  to  all  intents,  constructions, 
and  purposes  whatsoever."  *  "A  slave,"  says 
the  code  of  Louisiana,  "is  one  who  is  in  the 
power  of  his  master,  to  whom  he  belongs.  The 
master  may  sell  him,  dispose  of  his  person,  his 

*  See  2  Brevard's  Digest,  229 ;  Prince's  Digest,  446. 

(61) 


62  FRIENDLY   LETTERS 

industry,  and  his  labor;  he  can  do  nothing, 
possess  nothing,  nor  acquire  any  thing,  but  what 
must  belong  to  his  master."  * 

Thus,  rational,  immortal  beings,  children  of 
our  common  Father  in  heaven,  are  taken  from 
the  exalted  scale  in  which  God  placed  them,  and 
degraded  to  that  of  the  brute  creation.  They 
are,  as  you  know,  advertised,  mortgaged,  at- 
tached, inherited,  leased,  bought,  and  sold  like 
horses  and  cattle.  Like  them  they  are  brought 
to  the  auction  block,  and  like  them  subjected  to 
a  rigid  examination  as  to  their  age,  and  sound- 
ness of  wind,  chest,  and  limb.  Said  a  gentle- 
man to  me  :  "  When  I  was  at ,  I  visited  the 

slave  mart ;  and  as  I  saw  one  and  another  and 
another  of  my  fellow-beings  brought  forward  to 
the  block,  and  rudely  exposed  and  minutely 
examined,  in  order  to  ascertain  their  marketable 
value  in  dollars  and  cents,  and  then  struck  off  to 
the  highest  bidder,  amid  the  gibes  and  jeers  of 
the  vulgar,  my  heart  was  nigh  unto  bursting, 
and  I  was  obliged  to  turn  away  my  eyes  and 
weep,  exclaiming,  O  God !  can  it  be !  thy  chil- 
dren!  my  brothers  and  sisters  of  humanity, — 
perhaps  my  fellow-heirs  of  heaven,  —  precious 
souls  for  whom  the  Saviour  died,  whose  names 

*  Civil  Code,  Art.  35. 


TO   A   CHRISTIAN   SLAVEHOLDER.  63 

may  be  written  in  the  Book  of  Life,  and  over 
whose  repentance  angels  may  have  rejoiced! 
Can  it  be  ?  " 

For  myself,  I  never  witnessed  any  such  scenes, 
and  heaven  grant  I  never  may.  It  is  enough, 
and  too  much  for  me  to  know,  that  they  exist. 
I  allude  to  them  in  this  connection,  not  to 
awaken  and  pain  your  sensibilities,  but  simply 
to  illustrate  the  fact,  that  American  slavery 
sanctions  them,  and  by  its  operation  brings  down 
the  noblest  work  of  God  to  a  level  of  the  beasts 
that  perish.  As  far  as  it  can  do  so,  it  dehuman- 
izes man,  and  treats  him  as  a  thing  without  a 
soul.  It  may  be  remarked,  however,  in  passing, 
"  A  man's  a  man,  for  a'  that." 

I  might  speak  in  this  connection  of  the  obsta- 
cles which  are  thrown  in  the  way  of  the  slave's 
obtaining  redress  for  his  wrongs  should  ha  un- 
fortunately get  into  the  hands  of  a  cruel  and 
unreasonable  master,  being  forbidden  to  defend 
himself,  and  not  allowed  the  testimony  of  his 
brethren  to  be  given  in  his  behalf;  but  there  are 
other  features  of  this  system  which  more  ur- 
gently demand  our  attention. 

Neither  will  I  dwell  upon  the  ignorance  and 
mental  degradation  which  are  an  essential  part 
of  the  system.  You  need  not  be  informed,  that, 
in  ten  States,  knowledge  is  kept  from  the  slave 


64  FRIENDLY   LETTERS,   ETC. 

by  legal  enactments,  —  that  teaching  him  to  read 
is  regarded  a  crime,  to  be  severely  "  punished  by 
the  judges."  I  was  happy  to  find  that  you  and 
a  great  many  others  totally  disregard  that  law, 
and,  in  spite  of  legislators  and  penal  statutes, 
you  teach  your  slaves  to  read,  and  in  some 
cases  to  write.  For  this  crime  ^  I  doubt  not  but 
heaven,  at  least,  will  forgive  you.  I  shall  allude 
to  this  latter  topic  again  in  a  future  letter. 

Most  truly  and  affectionately,  yours3  etc. 


LETTER    V. 

DOMESTIC  LIFE.  —  THE  MARRIAGE  RELATION.  —  DOMESTIC  HAP- 
PINESS A  RELIC  OF  PARADISE.  —  ITS  ENDEARMENTS.  —  ITS 
VALUE.  —  THE  BARBARISM  OF  INVADING  THE  DOMESTIC  SANC- 
TUARY. —  AN  ILLUSTRATION. 

MY  DEAR  BROTHER,  —  I  come  now,  in  the  third 
place,  to  speak  of  slavery  as  it  is  related  to  the 
endearments  and  duties  of  domestic  life.  On 
this  subject  my  heart  is  full.  I  am  almost 
afraid  to  speak,  lest  I  say  what  I  ought  not; 
and  yet  I  cannot  keep  silence.  I  can,  in  a  good 
measure,  sympathize  with  Elihu  when  he  said,  — 

"  For  I  am  full  of  words, 
The  spirit  within  me  doth  constrain  me, 
Behold  I  am  as  wine  which  hath  no  vent, 
I  am  ready  to  burst  like  new  bottles, 
I  will  speak  that  I  may  breathe  more  freely, 
I  will  open  my  lips  and  reply."  * 

We  now  approach   a  topic   more  intimately. 

*  Job  ch.  32,  v.  17-20,  Barnes's  translation. 

5  (««) 


66  FRIENDLY  LETTERS 

connected  with  the  present  and  future  happiness 
of  the  human  race  than  almost  any  other.  Man 
was  not  completely  blest,  even  in  Eden,  until 
God  instituted  the  marriage  relation.  His  Cre- 
ator gave  him  a  companion  to  participate  in  his 
joys,  binding  them  together  by  ties  which  no 
human  power  might  sunder.  Paradise  was  lost 
by  sin,  but  as  our  first  parents  were  exiled  thence, 
God  in  infinite  kindness  permitted  them  to  take 
one  of  its  purest,  sweetest  sources  of  joy  with 
them  to  this  world  of  sorrows. 

"  Domestic  happiness !  thou  only  bliss 
Of  Paradise  that  has  survived  the  fall ! " 

You,  my  dear  brother,  are  a  husband  and  a 
father,  and  can  appreciate  my  meaning,  when  I 
speak  of  the  richness,  the  tenderness,  the  depth, 
of  connubial  and  paternal  love ;  how  it  lights  up 
this  dark  world  with  smiles,  — •  how  it  stimulates 
us  to  manly  exertion,  —  how  it  lightens  the  bur- 
dens of  human  life,  and  enables  us  cheerfully  to 
sustain  its  ills,  while  it  almost  restores  to  us 
Eden  itself.  To  understand  what  is  meant  by 
the  term  domestic  happiness,  it  is  necessary  for 
you  and  me  only  to  look  at  the  circles  around 
our  own  firesides,  and  listen  to  the  musical  ac- 
cents of  the  loved  ones  who  dwell  there,  as  they 
pronounce  the  words  husband,  father,  mother, 


TO   A   CHRISTIAN   SLAVEHOLDER.  67 

brother,  sister,  and  exchange  with  them  kind 
looks  and  the  affectionate  embrace.  What 
earthly  joys  can  be  compared  with  those  of 
home  ?  What  would  tempt  us  to  part  with 
them  ?  All  the  gold  in  California  and  Australia 
would  be  spurned  in  contempt,  if  offered  in  ex- 
change. What  should  we  say,  and  what  should 
we  do,  were  any  power  on  earth  to  interfere  with 
our  fireside  delights,  and  attempt  to  wrest  them 
from  us  ? 

Suppose  Providence  had  cast  our  lot  under  a 
despotic  government,  which  we  will  suppose  to 
be  for  the  most  part  kind  and  paternal,  but  hav- 
ing this  peculiarity,  —  every  now  and  then,  find- 
ing its  finances  embarrassed,  it  should  be  in  the 
habit  of  selling  some  of  its  subjects  to  a  foreign 
power  to  strengthen  its  exchequer,  and  should 
arbitrarily  select  its  victims  from  this  family  and 
that;  —  how  should  you  feel  were  the  doomed 
family  your  own  ?  What  would  have  been  your 
emotions  this  morning,  had  some  one  come  to 
your  room  and  told  you  that  that  bright-eyed 
boy,  "  Willie,"  who  last  night  sat  upon  your 
knee  and  amused  you  with  his  innocent  prattle, 
showed  you  his  toys,  examined  your  pockets, 
played  with  your  hair  and  features,  and  finally 
clasped  his  little  arms  around  your  neck  and  im- 
pressed the  "  good-night "  kiss  upon  your  lips, 


68  FKIENDLY   LETTERS 

had  been  seized  by  an  officer,  and  sold  from  your 
sight  forever  to  you  know  not  whom,  and  to  be 
carried  you  know  not  whither  ?  Nay,  more  ;  — 
*  suppose  that  while  he  was  yet  speaking,  there 
came  also  another  with  the  tidings  that  the  same 
fate  had  befallen  your  first-born,  — your  daughter, 
just  budding  into  womanhood,  —  the  affection- 
ate, joyous,  light-hearted  "  Kate,"  whose  voice  to 
your  ear  is  sweeter  than  the  music  of  flowing 
waters,  whose  feet  are  swifter  than  those  of  the 
light  gazelle,  as  with  open  arms  she  bounds  to 
meet  you  on  your  return  from  a  temporary  ab- 
sence, to  welcome  you  home  with  a  tear  of  joy  in 
her  eye  and  a  kiss  upon  her  lips,  —  that  she  too 
had  been  by  the  officials  of  the  government  clan- 
destinely abducted  from  your  dwelling,  and  sold, 
literally  sold,  for  a  valuation  put  upon  her  person 
in  dollars  and  cents,  to  a  hopeless  captivity,  to 
spend  her  days  in  unrequited  toil,  or,  not  unlike^ 
in  ministering  to  the  caprices  and  brutal  passions 
of  a  stranger? 

And  while  he  was  yet  speaking,  and  as  your 
wife,  half  frantic  with  grief  and  terror,  was  en- 
twining her  arms  around  you,  and  you  were 
striving  to  ease  your  bursting  heart,  to  crown 
the  whole,  suppose  another  official  and  his  posse 
had  entered  your  apartment,  and  by  force  of 
arms  had  torn  her  from  your  embrace,  and  with 


TO   A   CHRISTIAN   SLAVEHOLDER.  69 

thongs  upon  her  hands,  and  a  bandage  over  her 
mouth,  hurried  her  away  to  greet  your  sight  no 
more  ?  What  a  scene  !  There  go  in  one  direc- 
tion the  children  of  your  body,  "  bone  of  your 
bone,  and  flesh  of  your  flesh,"  to  an  unknown 
but  fearful  destiny!  In  another  is  ruthlessly 
borne  the  object  dearer  to  you  than  all  the  world 
beside,  —  one  whom  you  had  solemnly  sworn  to 
love,  cherish,  and  protect  until  death,  —  the  light 
of  your  dwelling,  —  the  mother  of  your  children, 
—  the  mutual  sharer  of  all  your  joys  and  sor- 
rows,—  the  richest  and  most  precious  treasure 
heaven  ever  gave  you !  —  there  she  goes  in  an 
agony  of  wo,  to  toil  under  a  burning  sun,  com- 
pelled to  call  another  man  her  husband,  or,  it 
may  be,  to  grace  her  master's  seraglio !  Merciful 
God !  what  meaneth  this  ?  What  horde  of  bar- 
barians from  the  dark  corners  of  the  earth  have 
found  their  way  hither  to  lay  waste  all  that  is 
beautiful  and  lovely !  What  fiend  from  the  pit 
has  been  let  loose  to  enter  this  little  Paradise  to 
destroy  and  bear  away  all  the  good  that  was  left 
of  the  primitive  Eden  ! 

No  ruthless  band  of  barbarians  from  benighted 
lands  have  found  their  way  to  this  Christian  do- 
mestic sanctuary,  —  no  malignant  spirit  from  be- 
low has  been  here  to  snatch  the  only  type  of 
Heaven  that  escaped  his  grasp  six  thousand 


70  FRIENDLY  LETTERS 

years  ago.  "  Think  it  not  strange,"  brother,  "con- 
cerning this  fiery  trial  as  though  some  strange 
thing  had  happened  to  you."  This  is  only  the 
legitimate  working  of  the  patriarchal  system  of 
government  under  which  we  live.  Be  calm,  — 
this  is  all  done  according  to  law,  and  with  as 
much  kindness  as  the  circumstances  will  permit. 
No  stripes  are  inflicted,  and  no  more  force  is  ex- 
erted than  is  absolutely  necessary  to  secure  the 
object,  and  prevent  a  useless  outcry  ;  no  ill- will 
is  entertained  toward  the  victims  of  these  out- 
rages,—  it  is  only  because  the  finances  of  the  gov- 
ernment are  low,  and  must  be  replenished,  and 
this  is  the  most  convenient,  and  perhaps  at  pres- 
ent the  only  practical,  way  of  raising  the  money ! 
Now,  my  brother,  what  should  you  and  I  think 
of  living  under  a  government  where  such  things 
were  permitted  by  the  laws  ?  It  would  not  rec- 
oncile us  to  the  administration  to  be  told,  that 
such  proceedings  as  I  have  supposed  are  of  rare 
occurrence,  and  that  the  general  character  of  the 
government  is  kind,  that  it  dislikes  exceedingly  to 
sell  its  subjects,  and  especially  that  it  has  a  great 
repugnance  to  separating  husbands  and  wives, 
and  breaking  up  of  families,  and  does  it  only  when 
severely  pressed  by  pecuniary  necessity.  To 
your  and  my  mind  this  would  be  altogether  un- 
satisfactory ;  it  would  not  change  our  opinion  of 


TO   A   CHRISTIAN   SLAVEHOLDER.  71 

the  system.  No  matter  if  the  heart-rending  scene 
I  have  supposed  were  witnessed  only  once  a  year, 
or  once  in  ten  years,  —  I  think  we  should  loudly 
protest  against  a  system  which  allowed  the  oc- 
currence of  it  at  all. 

You  will  please,  my  dear  sir,  apply  the  fore- 
going illustration  to  the  liabilities  and  actual 
workings  of  the  slave  system  at  the  South,  just 
so  far  as  it  is  applicable,  and  no  further.  If  there 
are  any  points  in  which  the  analogy  fails,  I  will 
thank  you  to  point  them  out  to  me  in  your  next. 
With  much  love  and  esteem, 

I  remain  yours,  most  truly. 


LETTER    VI. 

SACREDNESS  OF  THE  MARRIAGE  RELATION.  —  GOD  ALONE  CAN 
DISSOLVE  IT.  —  THE  "  HIGHER  LAW."  —  SLAVERY  SANCTIONS 
POLYGAMY  AND  ADULTERY.  —  RELATION  OF  PARENTS  TO  THEIR 
CHILDREN. — FEARFUL  RESPONSIBILITY  ASSUMED. 

MY  DEAR  CHRISTIAN  BROTHER,  —  My  objec- 
tions to  any  system  of  government  that  inter- 
feres at  will  with  the  family  relation,  and  forcibly 
separates  husbands  and  wives,  parents  and  chil- 
dren, do  not  arise  chiefly  from  the  personal 
wrongs  and  bitter  woes  inflicted  upon  its  vic- 
tims. A  contemplation  of  these  is  calculated  to 
affect  our  sensibilities,  and  excite  the  tender  sym- 
pathies of  our  nature  ;  but  there  is  a  more  en- 
larged Christian  view  which  forces  itself  upon 
us.  If  we  could  by  some  magic  process  allay 
the  anguish  of  the  stricken  heart,  and  heal  its 
wounds  when  the  strongest  ties  of  nature  are 
rent  asunder,  —  could  we  even  obliterate  the  sus- 
ceptibilities of  the  soul,  destroy  natural  affection, 
and  render  man  more  callous  than  the  brutes,  so 

(72) 


FRIENDLY   LETTERS,   ETC.  73 

that  he  could  be  torn  from  his  home  and  kindred 
with  less  pain  than  they,  —  in  a  moral  point  of 
view  the  case  would  be  altered  but  little.  As  I 
have  remarked  in  a  previous  letter,  the  marriage 
relation  was  instituted  by  God,  and  he  made  it 
indissoluble.  "  What  God  hath  joined  together 
let  not  man  put  asunder,"  is  the  language  of 
"  holy  writ ;  "  and  whoever,  for  any  cause  which 
God  himself  has  not  specified,  breaks  up  this  re- 
lation, encroaches  upon  God's  prerogative,  and 
goes  directly  in  face  of  his  positive  commands. 
Much  has  been  said  of  late,  seriously,  sarcasti- 
cally, and  contemptuously,  about  a  "  higher 
law ; "  but  notwithstanding  the  improper  use 
often  made  of  that  term,  there  is  an  important 
sense  in  which  you,  and  I,  and -every  Christian 
recognize  what  that  term  implies.  If,  on  any  sub- 
ject whatever,  human  enactments  do  obviously 
conflict  with  the  enactments  of  God,  then  God's 
law  is  the  " higher"  and  must  be  obeyed.  To 
deny  this  is  worse  than  infidelity. 

Now,  brother,  does  not  the  system  of  slavery 
in  the  United  States  tolerate,  and  even  author- 
ize, the  forcible  rending  asunder  of  the  marriage 
tie?  Are  not  husbands,  not  seldom,  but  often, 
sold  from  their  wives,  and  wives  from  their 
husbands,  and  new  matrimonial  alliances  formed 
by  them,  with  consent  and  encouragement  of 


74  FRIENDLY   LETTERS 

their  masters  ?  Thus  is  flagrant  adultery  sanc- 
tioned in  nearly  one  half  of  the  States  of  this 
Christian  Republic,  and  in  some  cases  the  crime 
is  almost,  if  not  quite,  forced  upon  the  wretched 
perpetrators  of  it.  When  God's  law  is  disre- 
garded, and  an  ordinance  on  which  depends  all 
we  hold  dear  in  social  and  Christian  life  is 
trampled  in  the  dust  by  an  institution  existing  in 
the  midst  of  us,  what  shall  we  say  ?  If  slavery 
were  a  question  merely  of  expediency,  political 
economy,  or  even  personal  wrong  and  suffering, 
it  would  be  easier  to  keep  silence;  but  when 
God  is  dishonored,  and  gross  sin  sanctioned  by 
law,  is  it  not  the  duty  of  his  children,  North  and 
South,  to  enter  their  solemn,  earnest,  decided 
protestations  ?  You  will  agree  with  me,  that 
no  Christian  can  or  ought  to  acquiesce  in  what, 
either  directly  or  indirectly,  violates  a  positive 
divine  precept;  and  against  what  shall  he  re- 
monstrate, if  not  against  a  system  that  encour- 
ages polygamy  and  legalizes  adultery  ?  * 

*  It  is  sometimes  said  that  the  crime  of  adultery  is  neither 
perpetrated  nor  encouraged  by  the  breaking  up  of  slave- 
families,  because,  generally,  the  connections  formed  are  not 
truly  marriage,  not  being  solemnized  according  to  forms  of 
law,  and  hence  the  marriage  obligation  cannot  be  violated. 

It  may  be  replied,  if  this  be  so,  it  presents  slavery  in  a 
worse  light  still,  for  it  encourages  and  perpetuates  a  state  of 
universal  concubinage.  But  it  is  not  so.  When  a  slave 


TO   A   CHRISTIAN   SLAVEHOLDER.  '     75 

There  is  another  view  in  which  the  operation 
of  the  system  of  slavery,  in  breaking  up  families, 
has  affected  my  mind  powerfully  and  painfully. 
Parents  sustain  most  important  relations  to  their 
children,  as  well  as  to  each  other.  Who  can  be 
so  much  interested  in  the  temporal  and  eternal 
well-being  of  the  child  as  those  by  whose  instru- 
mentality he  had  his  existence?  Who  has  so 
much  influence  over  him,  or  who  could  direct  his 
feet  in  the  way  he  should  go,  so  well  ?  God  has 
imposed  upon  all  parents  most  important  duties, 
which  they  may  not  neglect.  These  duties  are 
as  truly  incumbent  on  the  slave-parent  as  on  the 
master  who  sustains  the  same  relation.  It  may 
be,  indeed,  extensively  true  that  he  does  not 
understand  them,  and  is  in  a  great  measure  in- 
competent to  discharge  them  ;  and  that  often  the 
child  suffers  nothing  morally  or  intellectually  by 
being  removed  from  his  influence.  But  this 
results  in  a  great  measure  from  the  hopeless 
ignorance  in  which  the  parent  is  involved. 
There  are,  however,  as  you  can  bear  witness, 


1 


takes  a  companion,  and  they  consent  and  engage  to  live 
together  as  husband  and  wife  until  deaih,  and  they  thus 
declare  their  intentions  before  others,  whether  any  legal 
form  is  gone  through  or  not,  they  are  as  truly  "  no  more 
twain  but  one  flesh  "  as  were  Adam  and  Eve.  It  has  been 
thus  decided  by  our  courts  in  regard  to  white  persons. 


76  FRIENDLY   LETTERS 

multitudes  of  exceptions.  In  how  many  cases 
are  slave-parents  truly  pious  and  intelligent,  and 
feel  as  much  solicitude  for  the  eternal  interests 
of  their  children,  as  you  do  for  yours,  and  pray 
with  them  as  frequently  and  as  fervently.  With 
how  much  pleasure  did  you  and  I  listen  to  your 
"Jamie,"  one  time  when  we  were  taking  an 
evening  stroll  past  his  cabin,  and  overheard  his 
family  prayer.  With  what  simplicity  and  ear- 
nestness did  he  pour  out  his  soul  to  God  for  the 
salvation  of  his  "  dear  children."  And  do  you 
not  remember,  too,  how  with  equal  importunity 
he  prayed  God  to  "  bless  dear  kind  Massa  and 
Missus,  and  dere  precious  children,  and  also 
Massa's  friend,  and  dat  all  may  meet  to  praise 
Jesus  togedder  in  heaven,"  and  how  we  found  it 
difficult  to  speak  for  a  minute  or  two,  and  how 
the  big  tear-drops  stood  in  our  eyes,  and  we 
could  n't  help  it? 

You  told  me  there  were  a  great  many 
"  Jamies  "  at  the  South,  and  I  have  no  doubt  of 
it ;  they  love  their  little  ones  as  well,  and  who  so 
competent  to  train  them  up  for  Christ  ?  Who 
will  presume  to  step  in  between  these  parents 
and  their  children  and  say,  this  family  altar  shall 
be  broken  down,  and  those  who  have  bowed 
around  it  shall  be  separated,  to  meet  no  more  till 
they  meet  at  the  judgment  ?  Who  will  peril  his 


TO   A   CHRISTIAN   SLAVEHOLDER.  77 

own  soul  by  taking  those  children  away  from 
such  an  influence,  and  for  a  pecuniary  considera- 
tion cast  them  upon  the  wide  world  with  none  to 
instruct  them,  and  none  to  care  or  pray  for  them, 
except  their  heart-broken  parents  whom  they 
have  left  behind?  I  would  not  do  it,  neither 
would  you,  for  the  wealth  of  the  world ;  and  yet, 
is  it  not  often  done  ?  In  speaking  of  this  sub- 
ject, one  of  the  most  eminent  southern  divines  * 
uses  the  following  language :  "  Slavery,  as  it 
exists  among  us,  sets  up  between  parents  and 
their  children  an  authority  higher  than  the  im- 
pulse of  nature  and  the  laws  of  God ;  breaks  up 
the  authority  of  the  father  over  his  own  offspring, 
and  at  pleasure  separates  the  mother  at  a  return- 
less  distance  from  her  child,  thus  outraging  all 
decency  and  justice."  I  shall  refer  to  the  sen- 
timents of  this  brother  again. 
I  remain  as  ever, 

Affectionately  yours,  etc. 

*  Rev.  R.  I.  Breckenridge,  D.  D. 


LETTER    VII. 

THE  CROWNING  EVIL  OF  SLAVERY.  —  PRECIOUSNESS  OF  THE 
BIBLE.  —  OUR  CHART  AND  COMPASS  ON  LIFE'S  VOYAGE  IN- 
DISPENSABLE. —  ORAL  INSTRUCTIONS  INSUFFICIENT.  —  DANGERS. 
—  SHIPWRECK  ALMOST  INEVITABLE.  —  WITHHELD  FROM  THE 
SLAVE.  —  SHUTS  MULTITUDES  OUT  OF  HEAVEN.  —  AMERICAN 
BIBLE  SOCIETY.  —  TESTIMONY  OF  GENERAL  ASSEMBLY.  —  OF 
SYNOD  OF  KENTUCKY.  —  OF  DR.  BRECKENRIDGE. 

MY  DEAR  BROTHER,  —  There  is  one  feature  of 
slavery,  fourthly,  which  gives  me  more  pain 
by  far  than  any  other,  and  I  may  say  more  than 
all  others  put  together,  and  that  is,  it  imperils  the 
immortal  souls  of  millions  of  our  fellow-beings 
by  keeping  from  them  the  Word  of  God. 

Next  to  the  Saviour,  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  the 
most  precious  gift  God  has  bestowed  on  man  is 
the  Bible.  This  volume  contains  our  only  per- 
fect rule  of  life,  and  is  our  only  guide  to  heaven. 
It  teaches  us  our  character  and  our  destiny ;  it 
alone  raises  the  curtain  between  time  and  eter- 
nity, and  dissipates  the  darkness  that  otherwise 
would  forever  enshroud  the  grave ;  it  reveals  to 

(78) 


FRIENDLY   LETTERS,   ETC.  79 

us  another  state  of  being,  in  which  we  shall  be 
happy  or  miserable,  ages  without  end.  On  this 
Book  alone  do  we  depend  for  our  knowledge  of 
the  way  of  salvation  by  Christ.  It  is  here  we 
read  the  story  of  the  manger  and  the  cross,  and 
the  wonderful  plan  of  redemption  through  aton- 
ing blood.  What  could  we  do  without  the 
Bible  ?  It  is  of  infinitely  greater  value  than 
houses  and  lands,  silver  and  gold,  and  every 
earthly  good  beside.  To  take  from  us  the  Bible, 
would  be  like  blotting  out  the  sun  in  the  heavens, 
and  enveloping  the  universe  in  the  gloom  and 
darkness  of  eternal  night.  Take  from  me  riches, 
honors,  pleasures,  comforts,  and  even  liberty 
itself;  and  give  me  instead  thereof  poverty, 
disgrace,  pains,  affliction,  hunger,  cold,  naked- 
ness, and  a  dungeon ;  tear  me  from  my  friends, 
bind  me  with  chains,  scourge  me  with  the  lash, 
brand  my  flesh  with  hot  irons,  deprive  me  of 
every  source  of  earthly  good,  and  inflict  upon  me 
every  kind  of  bodily  and  mental  anguish  which 
the  utmost  refinement  of  cruelty  can  invent ;  — 
but  give  me  my  Bible  —  leave  me  this  precious 
treasure,  which  is  the  gift  of  my  heavenly  Father, 
to  teach  me  his  will  and  guide  rne  to  himself. 
Torture  and  destroy  my  body,  if  you  will,  but 
O !  give  me  facilities  for  saving  my  soul.  Turn 
me  not  adrift  on  life's  troubled  ocean  to  seek 


80  FRIENDLY  LETTER 

alone  a  far  distant  shore,  exposed  continually  to 
storms,  breakers,  hidden  reefs,  whirlpools,  and 
shoals,  with  nothing  but  a  few  verbal  instruc- 
tions to  direct  my  way.  If  I  am  to  make  this 
fearful  voyage,  (and  make  it  I  must,)  take  not 
from  me  my  chart  and  compass.  Your  verbal 
directions  I  shall  be  likely  to  forget  when  I  most 
need  them.  The  polestar,  which  you  tell  me 
may  be  my  guide,  is  often  for  a  long  time 
concealed  by  impenetrable  clouds.  There  are 
fearful  maelstroms,  near  the  verge  of  whose 
deceptive  and  destructive  circles  my  course  lies, 
and  ere  I  am  aware  of  it  I  shall  have  passed 
the  fatal  line,  from  which  no  voyager  returns. 
Between  me  and  my  desired  haven  there 
is  a  "hell-gate,"  where  are  sunken  rocks  and 
conflicting  currents,  and  amid  all  these  compli- 
cated dangers  my  frail  bark  will  make  ship- 
wreck, without  my  chart  and  compass.  De- 
prived of  these,  I  cannot  keep  my  reckoning,  I 
cannot  shape  my  course,  I  cannot  find  my 
haven. 

I  need  not  tell  you,  my  dear  brother,  that  it  is  a 
part  of  the  slaveholding  policy  to  take  from  thou- 
sands and  millions  of  immortal  beings  in  our 
nominally  Christian  land,  this  precious  chart  and 
compass,  —  the  Bible,  the  only  safe  guide  to 
heaven.  I  have  often  heard  you  speak  of  it. 


TO   A   CHRISTIAN    SLAVEHOLDER.  81 

and  deplore  it.  Those  severe  laws  which  forbid 
teaching  the  slave  to  read,  do  virtually  take  from 
him  the  Bible,  —  his  directory  to  the  New  Jeru- 
salem. You  may,  indeed,  give  him  oral  instruc- 
tion, and  in  many  instances,  no  doubt,  they  are 
blessed  to  his  conversion ;  but  how  utterly  inade- 
quate are  they  to  his  spiritual  wants,  how  imper-  j 
feet  are  they  at  best,  and  in  how  many  thousands 
of  cases  are  even  these  entirely  wanting.  Every 
enlightened  and  intelligent  Christian  knows,  from 
his  own  experience,  how  hard  it  is  to  enter  the 
"  strait  gate,"  and  to  keep  in  the  "  narrow 
way,"  and  how  needful  to  him  are  all  the  helps 
within^  his  reach,  and  then  he  is  but  "  scarcely 
saved."  What  hope  is  there,  then,  for  the  poor 
slave,  who  is  deprived,  not  only  of  most  of  the 
ordinary  and  extraordinary  means  of  grace  which 
we  enjoy,  but  is  forbidden  the  printed  Word  of 
God?  Is  not  a  fearful  responsibility  incurred 
by  those  who,  for  any  reason,  stand  between 
God  and  his  children,  and  intercept  those  mes- 
sages of  grace  and  mercy  which  are  contained 
in  the  Holy  Scriptures  ? 

That  noble  institution,  the  American  Bible  So- 
ciety, is  multiplying  copies  of  the  sacred  Word  by 
thousands  and  hundreds  of  thousands,  and  scat- 
tering them  over  the  land  and  the  world ;  it  hesi- 
tates not  to  thrust  them  into  the  hands  of  the  fol- 
6 


82  FRIENDLY  LETTERS 

lowers  of  the  false  prophet,  —  the  deluded  follow- 
ers of  the  man  of  sin,  —  the  disciples  of  Confu- 
cius and  Zoroaster, — the  worshippers  of  Jugger- 
naut and  Vishnoo,  and  the  degraded  inhabitants 
of  the  South  Seas  and  Caffraria ;  —  it  benevo- 
lently resolves  to  put  a  copy  of  the  Bible  into  the 
dwelling  of  every  white  family  in  these  United 
States ;  but  it  is  obliged  by  law  to  pass  by  the 
cabin  of  the  slave,  and  leave  more  than  three 
millions  of  immortal  beings  to  find  the  road  to 
.heaven  the  best  way  they  can. 

My  brother,  I  cannot  think  of  these  things 
without  the  deepest  grief,  and  I  know  that  you 
fully  sympathize  with  me ;  but  it  is  some  conso- 
lation to  believe  that  the  great  mass  of  evangeli- 
cal Christians  take  the  same  views  of  the  wrongs 
inflicted  upon  the  slave  that  we  do,  for  it  is  to 
the  Christian  sentiment  of  this  country  that  we 
must  look  for  the  removal  of  them. 

Our  brethren  of  the  Presbyterian  church  have 
borne  their  testimony  most  fully  and  pointedly 
against  the  evils  of  slavery  which  we  have  been 
considering.  You  doubtless  recollect  the  action 
of  the  General  Assembly  on  this  subject  in  1818. 
A  committee  was  appointed,  to  whom  was  re- 
ferred certain  resolutions^  on  the  subject  of  selling 
a  slave, —  a  member  of  the  church, —  and  which 
was  directed  to  prepare  a  report  to  be  adopted 


TO   A   CHRISTIAN   SLAVEHOLDER.  83 

by  the  Assembly,  expressing  their  opinion  in 
general  on  the  subject  of  slavery.  The  report  of 
this  committee  was  unanimously  adopted,  and 
ordered  to  be  published.  It  is,  in  part,  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

"  The  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  having  taken  into  consideration  the  sub- 
ject of  slavery,  think  proper  to  make  known 
their  sentiments  upon  it  to  the  churches. 

"  We  consider  the  voluntary  enslaving  of  the 
one  part  of  the  human  race  by  another,  as  a 
gross  violation  of  the  most  precious  and  sacred 
rights  of  human  nature ;  as  utterly  inconsistent 
with  the  law  of  God,  which  requires  us  to  love 
our  neighbors  as  ourselves ;  and  as  totally  irre- 
concilable with  the  spirit  and  principles  of  the 
gospel  of  Christ,  which  enjoins  that  all  things 
'whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should  do  to 
you,  do  ye  even  so  to  them.'  Slavery  creates  a 
paradox  in  the  moral  system  ;  it  exhibits  rational, 
accountable,  and  immortal  beings  in  such  cir- 
cumstances as  scarcely  to  leave  them  the  power 
of  moral  action.  It  exhibits  them  as  dependent 
on  the  will  of  others,  whether  they  shall  receive 
religious  instruction ;  whether  they  shall  know 
and  worship  the  true  God ;  whether  they  shall 
enjoy  the  ordinances  of  the  gospel ;  whether  they 
shall  perform  the  duties  and  cherish  the  endear- 


84  FRIENDLY  LETTERS 

ments  of  husbands  and  wives,  parents  and  chil- 
dren, neighbors  and  friends ;  whether  they  shall 
preserve  their  chastity  and  purity,  or  regard  the 
dictates  of  justice  and  humanity. 

"  Such  are  some  of  the  consequences  of  slavery, 
—  consequences,  not  imaginary,  but  which  con- 
nect themselves  with  its  very  existence.  The 
evils  to  which  the  slave  is  always  exposed  often 
take  place  in  fact,  and  in  their  very  worst  degree 
and  form,  and  where  all  of  them  do  not  take 
place,  as  we  rejoice  to  say  that  in  many  instances, 
through  the  influence  of  the  principles  of  human- 
ity and  religion  on  the  minds  of  masters,  they 
do  not,  still  the  slave  is  deprived  of  his  natural 
right,  degraded  as  a  human  being,  and  exposed 
to  the  danger  of  passing  into  the  hands  of  a  mas- 
ter who  may  inflict  upon  him  all  the  hardships 
which  inhumanity  and  avarice  may  suggest." 

An  Address  from  the  Synod  of  Kentucky,  in 
1835,  to  the  Presbyterians  of  that  State,  is  much 
more  specific  in  its  delineations  of  the  evils  of 
slavery,  and  in  its  denunciations  of  the  system, 
and  adopts  language  far  more  severe  than  many 
northern  Christians  would  think  it  expedient  to 
use.  It  presents  a  picture  of  its  actual  workings 
which  could  be  drawn  only  by  one  who  had  seen 
the  original.  If  you  have  not  read  this  address, 
I  beg  that  you  will  do  so.  It  is  altogether  a 


TO   A   CHRISTIAN   SLAVEHOLDER.  85 

southern  document.    I  have  room  only  for  a  short 
extract. 

Slavery  is  characterized  as  "a  demoralizing 
and  cruel  system,  which  it  would  be  an  insult  to 
God  to  imagine  that  he  does  not  abhor ;  a  system 
which  exhibits  power  without  responsibility,  toil 
without  recompense,  life  without  liberty,  law  with- 
out justice,  wrongs  without  redress,  infamy  with- 
out crime,  punishment  without  guilt,  and  families 
without  marriage  ;  a  system  which  will  not  only 
make  victims  of  the  present  unhappy  generation, 
inflicting  upon  them  the  degradation,  the  con- 
tempt, the  lassitude,  and  the  anguish  of  hopeless 
oppression ;  but  which  even  aims  at  transmitting 
this  heritage  of  injury  and  woe  to  their  children 
and  their  children's  children,  down  to  their  latest 
posterity.  Can  any  Christian  contemplate,  with- 
out trembling,  his  own  agency  in  the  perpetuation 
of  such  a  system  ?  " 

Coincident  with  the  judgment  of  these  two 
most  respectable  and  revered  ecclesiastical  bodies 
is  the  testimony  of  one  of  the  most  prominent 
and  honored  sons  of  the  southern  church,  the  Rev. 
Dr.  R.  L  Breckenridge.  Says  he :  — 

"  What  then  is  slavery  ?  for  the  question  relates 
to  the  action  of  certain  principles  of  it,  and  to  its 
probable  and  proper  results  ;  what  is  slavery  as  it 


86  FRIENDLY   LETTEHS 

exists  among  us  ?  We  reply,  it  is  that  condition 
enforced  by  the  laws  of  one  half  of  the  States  of 
this  confederacy,  in  which  one  portion  of  the  com- 
munity, caUed  masters,  are  allowed  such  power 
over  another  portion  called  slaves,  as  — 

"  1.  To  deprive  them  of  the  entire  earnings  of 
their  own  labor,  except  so  much  as  is  necessary 
to  continue  labor  itself  by  continuing  healthful 
existence  :  thus  committing  clear  robbery. 

"  2.  To  reduce  them  to  the  necessity  of  uni- 
versal concubinage,  by  denying  to  them  the  civil 
rights  of  marriage,  thus  breaking  up  the  dearest 
relations  of  life,  and  encouraging  universal  pros- 
titution. 

"  3.  To  deprive  them  of  the  means  and  oppor- 
tunities of  moral  and  intellectual  culture,  in  many 
States  making  it  a  high  penal  offence  to  teach 
them  to  read,  thus  perpetuating  whatever  of  evil 
there  is  that  proceeds  from  ignorance. 

"  4.  To  set  up  between  parents  and  their  chil- 
dren an  authority  higher  than  the  impulse  of 
nature  and  the  laws  of  God,  which  breaks  up  the 
authority  of  the  father  over  his  own  offspring, 
and  at  pleasure  separates  the  mother  at  a  return- 
less  distance  from  her  child,  thus  abrogating  the 
clearest  laws  of  nature,  thus  outraging  all  decency 
and  justice,  and  degrading  and  oppressing  thou- 


TO   A   CHRISTIAN   SLAVEHOLDER.  87 

sands  upon  thousands  of  beings,  created  like 
themselves  in  the  image  of  the  most  high  God ! 
This  is  slavery  as  it  is  daily  exhibited  in  every 
slave  State." 

Yes,  such  is  the  nature  and  character  of  an  in- 
stitution in  this  enlightened  Christian  republic, 
claiming  to  be  the  freest  nation  on  earth,  calling 
itself  "  an  asylum  for  the  oppressed,"  inviting  the 
downtrodden  subjects  of  all  the  despots  of  the 
old  world  to  come  to  this  happy  land,  and  place 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  the  American 
eagle,  and  in  this  "  eyrie  of  the  free  "  taste  and 
enjoy  the  sweets  of  liberty! 

The  views  presented  in  the  above  extracts  may 
be  taken,  it  is  to  be  presumed,  as  an  exponent  of 
the  southern  Christian  sentiment  on  domestic 
slavery.  There  are,  indeed,  exceptions.  It  is 
painful  to  notice  that  within  a  few  years  some 
men  of  reputed  piety  and  worth  have  been  at- 
tempting to  maintain  that  American  slavery  is  a 
"  divine  and  patriarchal  institution,"  "  sanctioned 
by  the  Bible,"  —  is  "necessary  to  the  highest 
state  of  society,"  and  is  "  to  be  perpetuated ; " 
but  I  am  happy  to  believe  that  the  number  of 
those  who  hold  such  views,  repudiating  those  of 
the  Presbyterian  church,  and  at  the  same  time 
call  themselves  disciples  of  Him  who  said,  "what- 


88  FRIENDLY   LETTERS,   ETC. 

soever  ye  would  that  men  should  do  to  you,  do 
ye  even  so  to  them,"  is  comparatively  small. 

I  close  this  long  letter  by  subscribing  myself, 
as  ever, 

Your  affectionate 

Friend  and  Brother. 


LETTEE    VIII. 

THREE  QUESTIONS  SUGGESTED.  —  1.  MUST  SLAVERY  BE  PERPET- 
UAL?—2.  DOES  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST  SUSTAIN  ANY  RESPON- 
SIBILITY IN  THIS  MATTER?  —  3.  WHAT  SHALL  WE  DO? 

MY  DEAR  CHRISTIAN  FRIEND,  —  I  fear  I  shall 
make  myself  tedious  to  you  by  dwelling  so  long 
upon  this,  to  me,  painful  subj ect,  —  slavery.  I  will, 
therefore,  in  the  present  letter,  finish  what  I  have 
to  say  for  the  present,  hoping  that  our  future  cor- 
respondence may  be  on  more  grateful  themes. 

There  are  a  few  questions  which  are  suggested 
to  us  by  the  brief  view  we  have  taken  of  this 
most  important  subject.  The  first  is,  Must  slavery, 
with  all  its  attendant  evils,  be  perpetuated  ?  Must 
this  blot  rest  upon  our  beloved  country,  and  tar- 
nish its  escutcheon  forever  ?  I  am  persuaded 
that  the  spontaneous  answer  from  the  Christian 
heart  of  this  nation  is,  No  !  It  was  never  con- 
templated by  Washington  nor  Jefferson  nor 
Adams,  nor  by  the  framers  of  our  Constitution, 
nor  by  the  great  mass  of  noble  patriots  who 

(89) 


90  FRIENDLY   LETTERS 

perilled  their  all  for  the  independence  of  their 
country,  that  slavery  was  to  be  handed  down  to 
posterity.  If  you  will  look  at  the  writings  of  the 
leading  public  men  of  the  last  century,  you  will 
find,  that,  almost  without  exception,  they  looked 
upon  slavery  in  the  United  States  as  a  temporary 
evil,  to  be  removed  as  soon  as  circumstances 
would  permit.  They  regarded  it  not  only  a 
wrong  inflicted  upon  the  slave,  but  an  incubus 
upon  the  nation,  soon  to  pass  away. 

The  great  body  of  Christians  in  our  land  have 
been  looking  forward  to  the  time,  and  praying  for 
its  arrival,  when  all  the  oppressed  within  our 
borders  shall  go  free.  That  the  time  will  come 
when  slavery  shall  cease  in  our  land,  I  as  fully 
believe  as  I  believe  that  there  is  a  God  who  pre- 
sides over  and  directs  the  destinies  of  men. 
You  and  I  may  not  live  to  see  the  day ;  but  it 
will  come. 

Another  question  suggested  is,  Does  the  church 
of  Christ  in  this  country  sustain  any  responsibil- 
ity in  regard  to  slavery,  and  has  she  any  duty  to 
discharge  in  relation  to  it  ?  By  the  church  of 
Christ,  I  mean  the  great  mass  of  Christians  of 
every  name  who  love  the  Lord  Jesus  in  sincerity, 
both  North  and  South. 

This  question  is  easily  answered.  There  are 
no  evils  existing  in  the  Christian's  field  of  labor — 


TO   A   CHRISTIAN   SLAVEHOLDER.  91 

the  world  —  in  regard  to  which  he  has  not  some 
responsibility,  and  for  the  removal  of  which  he 
is  not  bound  to  do  something.  As  a  general 
truth,  the  nearer  the  evils  come  to  our  own  fire- 
sides and  bosoms,  the  weightier  those  responsi- 
bilities become.  The  hundreds  of  millions  of 
heathens  in  foreign  lands  lying  in  sin  and  degra- 
dation appeal  to  our  sympathy  and  efforts,  and 
that  appeal  we  may  not  disregard.  But  the 
heathen  in  our  own  land  have  on  us  much 
stronger  claims,  and  our  obligations  to  put  forth 
efforts  in  their  behalf  are  more  imperious. 

Slavery  is  a  great  evil  and  sin,  which  affects 
not  only  individuals,  but  our  country ;  and,  both 
as  Christians  and  patriots,  we  ought  to  be  sensi- 
bly alive  to  every  thing  that  affects  our  common 
weal.  You  who  live  at  the  South,  it  may  be,  have 
more  responsibility  in  this  matter  than  we  at  the 
North ;  but  none  of  us  can  say,  "  because  I  am 
not  personally  implicated  in  inflicting  wrongs 
upon  the  slave,  therefore  I  have  nothing  to  do  for 
their  removal."  Should  this  become  the  universal 
sentiment  of  the  church,  Satan's  kingdom  in  our 
world  would  never  come  to  an  end,  and  wicked 
ness  would  prevail  forever.  The  spirit  of  Christi- 
anity, although  preeminently  mild,  gentle,  patient, 
and  long-suffering,  is  nevertheless,  in  an  important 


92  FRIENDLY   LETTERS 

sense,  aggressive.  It  has  ever  claimed  the  right 
of  interesting  itself  in  the  welfare  of  every  human 
creature  —  to  exert  its  influence  to  check  the 
progress  of  sin  in  every  form  —  to  attack  error  in 
principle  and  in  practice  —  to  "  loose  the  bands 
of  wickedness,"  —  "  undo  heavy  burdens,"  — 
"  break  every  yoke,"  — "  deliver  the  poor  and 
needy,"  —  and  to  "  remember  them  that  are  in 
bonds  as  bound  with  them."  This,  by  some,  may 
be  called  officiousness,  but  we  cannot  help  it ;  it 
is  a  part  of  the  Christian's  legitimate  business  to 
volunteer  his  influence  and  his  services  (in  every 
proper  way)  in  opposing  wrong,  and  to  stand  up 
and  plead  the  cause  of  those  who  suffer  it  the 
world  over.  He  cannot  refrain  from  doing  so, 
without  proving  himself  false  to  his  Master  and 
his  Master's  cause. 

Admitting,  then,  that  all  Christians  have 
some  kind  of  responsibility  and  duty  devolv- 
ing on  them,  a  most  important  question 
comes  up.  Thirdly,  what  shall  they  do? 
There  are  certainly  some  things  which  it  is 
perfectly  evident  we  should  not  do,  —  though 
we  should  rebuke  this  and  every  sin,  we 
should  not  give  vent  to  our  hatred  of  the 
system  in  ebullitions  of  wrath,  invective,  and 
abuse  toward  slaveholders.  Thus  did  not 


TO   A   CHRISTIAN   SLAVEHOLDER.  93 

Christ  nor  his  apostles.  This  is  not  in  accor- 
dance with  the  Christian  spirit,  and  could  be 
productive  only  of  evil. 

Neither  should  we  endeavor  to  exert  an  influ- 
ence over  the  slaves  to  make  them  restive  and 
disobedient ;  none  but  an  enemy  to  the  true  in- 
terests, both  of  the  slave  and  his  country,  would 
do  that,  unless  under  some  hallucination. 

Neither  should  we  interfere  politically  with  sla- 
very beyond  the  boundaries  of  our  own  State,  in 
States  where  it  now  exists  by  the  laws  of  the  land. 
I  might  go  on  indefinitely,  and  specify  what  we 
should  not  do ;  but  this  does  not  meet  the  case ; 
—  what  shall  we  do  ?  It  would  be  arrogance  in 
me  to  attempt  a  full  answer  to  a  question  that 
has  engaged  the  attention  of  many  abler  heads 
and  better  hearts  than  mine,  but  there  are  some 
things  which  have  already  been  said  by  others, 
that  cannot  be  too  frequently  repeated. 

In  the  first  place,  we  can  commit  this  whole 
matter  to  God  in  humble,  earnest  prayer.  Here 
is  something  which  we  can  all  do,  North  and 
South,  and  in  which  we  shall  all  be  agreed. 
However  much  we  may  differ  in  regard  to  the 
safety  and  expediency  of  other  measures  to 
moderate  the  condition  of  the  slave  and  bring 
about  his  ultimate  emancipation,  we  are  of  one 
mind  in  regard  to  the  safety  and  efficacy  of 


94  FRIENDLY  LETTERS 

prayer.  One  effect  of  this  will  be  to  unite  our 
own  hearts  more  closely  in  sympathy  and  love. 
There  will  be  no  danger  of  calling  each  other 
hard  names,  bandying  unchristian  epithets,  and 
biting  and  devouring  one  another,  if  we  are  in  the 
habit  of  meeting  daily  at  the  throne  of  grace  to 
pray  for  a  cause  in  which  we  take  a  mutual 
interest. 

By  prayer  we  may  hope  to  be  enlightened 
more  fully  in  regard  to  our  duty.  "  If  any  man 
lack  wisdom,"  and  surely  we  all  do  on  this 
subject,  "let  him  ask  of  God." 

In  answer  to  prayer,  we  have  reason  to  hope 
that  God  will  open  the  eyes  to  teach  the  hearts 
of  all  slaveholders,  and  lead  them  to  "  do  justly 
and  love  mercy,"  and  also  that  he  will,  in  his 
holy  and  wise  Providence,  redress  the  wrongs  of 
his  oppressed  children,  and  prepare  the  way  for 
their  ultimate  emancipation. 

Prayer  is  the  Christian's  first  and  last  resort. 
Let  us,  then,  my  dear  brother,  pray  over  this  sub- 
ject continuously,  and  with  an  earnestness  com- 
mensurate with  its  importance,  and  then,  I  doubt 
not,  we  shall  ourselves  be  more  enlightened  than 
we  now  are  as  to  our  future  course. 

A  second  duty,  hardly  less  obvious  than  prayer, 
is  to  use  all  the  influence  we  possess  to  prevent 
the  extension  of  the  domain  of  slavery.  To  this 


TO   A   CHRISTIAN   SLAVEHOLDER.  95 

end,  we  should  utter  our  voices  long  and  loud  in 
remonstrance  against  any  such  measure.  If  we 
and  our  legislators  may  not  politically  interfere 
with  slavery  in  States  where  it  now  exists,  we 
may  interfere  to  prevent  it  from  exerting  its  bale- 
ful influence  over  territory  now  free.  We  should 
do  many  things  for  the  sake  of  peace  and  con- 
ciliation. We  have  heretofore  made  concessions 
and  compromises  —  perhaps  too  many  —  on 
this  subject;  but  here  is  where  the  people  of 
God,  North  and  South,  should  make  a  stand, 
and  declare  before  heaven  and  earth,  and  with 
an  emphasis  which  cannot  be  misunderstood,  that 
not  another  inch  of  our  public  domain  shall  be 
cursed  with  slavery  for  any  consideration  what- 
ever, if  our  influence  can  prevent  it.  In  our  re- 
monstrances, we  will  be  respectful,  but  firm. 
Let  our  politicians  know  that  all  persons  who 
are  governed  by  Christian  principle,  through  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  land,  have  taken  their 
position,  and  that  the  mountains  shall  be  re- 
moved out  of  their  places,  ere  they  will  swerve 
from  it,  and  there  will  be  but  little  danger  of 
slave  extension. 

In  the  third  place,  we  should  use  every  en- 
deavor to  disseminate  the  gospel  of  Christ,  and 
bring  its  principles  to  bear  upon  all  classes  of 
persons,  North  and  South.  If  we  can  do  this 


96  FRIENDLY   LETTERS 

effectually,  it  is  all  sufficient.  The  Gospel,  if 
faithfully  applied,  is  a  sure  remedy  for  every 
social  and  moral  evil  that  ever  existed.  We  at 
the  North  should  demonstrate  to  our  slave- 
holding  friends  whom  we  wish  to  influence,  that 
we  ourselves  are  governed  by  its  spirit,  and 
actuated  by  its  principle,  in  all  that  we  do  in 
relation  to  this  subject.  It  is  not  ambition,  a 
lust  for  power,  sectional  jealousy,  a  spirit  of 
censoriousness  or  ill-will,  that  prompts  us  to 
what  they  have  been  in  the  habit  of  regarding  as 
intermeddling  with  their  affairs,  in  which  we 
have  no  concern,  but  a  spirit  of  love,  —  love  not 
less  to  them  than  to  their  slaves.  And  then,  in 
the  temper  of  Christ,  we  will  bring  the  Gospel  to 
bear  on  the  slaveholder's  conscience  and  sense  of 
justice.  We  will  hold  up  and  keep  before  his 
mind  the  great  rule  of  life  given  by  Him  who 
spake  as  never  man  spake,  — "  Whatsoever  ye 
would  that  men  should  do  to  you,  do  you  even  so 
to  them."  Let  this  rule  be  once  adopted  and 
carried  out,  and  it  is  enough.  Human  beings 
would  no  more  be  sold  as  beasts  in  the  market, 
and  driven  to  unrequited  toil ;  the  minds  of  men 
would  no  longer  be  kept  in  ignorance ;  the  do- 
mestic circle  would  never  again  be  invaded  by  the 
hand  of  sordid  avarice  separating  husbands  and 
wives,  parents  and  children,  doing  savage  violence 


TO   A   CHRISTIAN   SLAVEHOLDER.  97 

to  the  noblest  affections  of  our  nature ;  the  Bible 
would  be  put  into  the  hands  of  every  slave,  and 
he  would  be  taught  to  read  it ;  common  schools 
and  Sabbath  schools  would  be  everywhere  es- 
tablished and  maintained,  as  well  for  the  slave 
as  for  the  white  child ;  the  master  would  regard 
those  whom  he  now  holds  as  property  as  his 
own  brethren,  going  with  him  to  the  same  judg- 
ment, and  destined  finally  to  dwell  with  him  as 
his  equals,  in  the  same  heaven,  and  to  wear  as 
bright  crowns  and  sing  as  rapturous  a  song  as 
he.  He  would  immediately  set  himself  about 
preparing  his  slaves  for  emancipation,  and  for 
the  enjoyment  of  those  natural  rights,  of  which 
they  have  for  so  long  a  time  been  most  unjustly 
deprived.  In  short,  slavery,  as  the  term  is  now 
understood,  would  cease  instantly,  and  a  kind, 
parental  guardianship  would  take  its  place,  and 
every  southern  plantation  would  be  transformed 
into  a  moral  garden  of  beauty  and  happiness, 
and  universal  and  entire  emancipation  would  fol- 
low with  the  least  possible  delay.  And,  finally, 
we  should  if  possible  bring  the  Gospel  to  bear 
upon  the  great  body  politic,  upon  our  presidents, 
our  governors,  our  National  and  State  legisla- 
tors. It  would  seem  that  some  of  our  law- 
makers are  much  better  acquainted  with  Black- 
stone  and  Vattel,  than  they  are  with  the  Lord 
7 


98  FRIENDLY   LETTERS,   ETC. 

Jesus  Christ,  or  they  would  not  disgrace  our 
statute-books  with  laws  which  ignore  the  "  higher 
laws "  of  God.  We  should  often  remind  them 
that  this  is  a  Christian,  and  not  a  heathen  or 
infidel  republic ;  and  that  every  enactment,  not 
consistent  with  the  gospel  of  Christ  and  inalien- 
able human  rights,  does  violence  to  the  Christian 
sentiment  and  Christian  conscience  of  the  nation, 
and  must  be  repealed.  If  they  will  not  hear  us, 
we  have  only  to  appoint  more  faithful  servants, 
who  will  do  as  they  are  told.  We  have  no  idea 
of  "  uniting  church  and  state,"  but  to  infuse  as 
much  of  the  Gospel  into  the  state  as  possible  is 
both  a  privilege  and  duty ;  and  when  all  our 
affairs  and  institutions,  public,  domestic,  and 
private,  are  administered  on  gospel  principles, 
we  shall  become  a  free,  prosperous,  and  happy 
people,  and  not  till  then. 

And  now,  may  God  bless  you,  my  dear  brother, 
and  guide  you,  and  guide  us  all,  to  pursue  such 
a  course  in  regard  to  the  three  and  a  half  mil- 
lions of  slaves  in  our  professedly  free  republic  as 
will  afford  us  the  most  satisfaction  when  we 
meet  them  as  our  equals  at  the  judgment-seat 
of  Christ. 

With  high  esteem  and  much  affection, 

T  remain  your  Christian  brother, 
A.  C.  BALDWIN. 


AN  ESSAY, 


REV.  TIMOTHY  WILLISTON. 


IS  AMERICAN   SLAVERY   AN   INSTITUTION   WHICH   CHRISTIANITY 

SANCTIONS,  AND   WILL   PERPETUATE  ?    AND,  IN   VIEW 

OF  THIS   SUBJECT,  WHAT  OUGHT  AMERICAN 

CHRISTIANS  TO  DO,  AND  REFRAIN 

FROM  DOING  ? 


Homo  sum  ;  human!  nihil  a  me  alienum  puto.  —  TERENCE. 
Bear  ye  one  another's  burdens.  —  PAUL. 

(99) 


ESSAY. 


A  GREAT  moral  question  is,  in  this  nineteenth 
century,  being  tried  before  the  church  of  Christ, 
and  at  the  bar  of  public  sentiment.  It  is,  Whether 
the  system  of  servitude  known  as  American  sla- 
very be  a  system  whose  perpetuity  is  compati- 
ble with  pure  Christianity  ?  Whether,  with  the 
Bible  in  her  hand,  the  church  may  lawfully  in- 
dorse, participate  in,  and  help  perpetuate,  this  sys- 
tem ?  Or  whether,  on  the  other  hand,  the  system 
be,  in  its  origin,  nature,  and  workings,  intrinsi- 
cally evil ;  a  thing  which,  if,  like  concubinage 
and  polygamy,  God  has  indeed  tolerated  in  his 
church,  he  never  approved  of;  and  which,  in  the 
progress  of  a  pure  Christianity,  must  inevitably 
become  extinct  ?  I  feel  assured  that  the  latter 
of  these  propositions  will,  without  argument, 
command  the  assent  of  the  mass  of  living 

(101) 


102  ESSAY. 

Christians.  But  there  are  those  in  the  church 
who  array  themselves  on  the  other  side.  While 
they  would  not  justify  the  least  inhumanity  in 
the  treatment  of  slaves,  they  profess  to  believe 
that  slavery  itself  has  the  approbation  of  Jeho- 
vah, and  may  with  propriety  be  perpetuated  in 
the  church  and  the  world.  At  their  hands  I 
would  respectfully  solicit  a  patient  hearing,  while 
I  proceed  to  assign  several  reasons  for  differing 
with  them  in  opinion. 

First,  Slavery  is  a  condition  of  society  not 
founded  in  nature.  When  God,  in  his  Word, 
demands  that  children  shall  be  in  subordination 
to  their  parents,  and  citizens  to  the  constituted 
civil  authorities,  we  need  no  why  and  wherefore 
to  enable  us  to  see  the  reasonableness  of  these 
requirements.  We  feel  that  they  are  no  arbi- 
trary enactments,  but  indispensable  to  the  best 
interests  of  families  and  of  society,  and  there- 
fore founded  in  nature.  We  are  prepared,  too, 
from  their  obvious  necessity  and  utility,  to  rank 
them  among  the  permanent  statutes  of  the  Divine 
Legislator.  But  can  as  much  be  said  of  slavery  ? 
Is  there  such  an  obvious  fitness  and  utility  in 
one  man's  being,  against  his  will,  owned  and 
controlled  by  another,  as  to  prepare  us  to  say  that 
such  an  ownership  is  founded  in  the  very  con- 
stitution of  things  ?  None  will  pretend  that 


ESSAY.  103 

there  is.      Not   only  is  slavery  not  founded  in 
nature,  but, 

Second.  It  is  condemned  by  the  very  instincts 
of  our  moral  constitution.  These  instincts  seem 
to  whisper  that  "  all  men  are  born  free  and 
equal;"  equal,  not  in  intellect,  or  in  the  petty 
distinctions  of  parentage,  property,  or  power; 
but  having,  as  the  creatures  of  one  God,  an 
equal  right  to  "  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of 
happiness."  Job's  moral  instincts  taught  him, 
that  the  fact  of  all  men's  having  one  and  the 
same  Creator  gave  his  servants  a  right  to  con- 
tend with  him,  when  wronged ;  and  that,  if  he 
"  despised  their  cause,"  he  must  answer  it  to  his 
God  and  theirs.  That  men  of  all  races  and 
grades  are  essentially  equal  before  God ;  that 
every  man  has  a  right  to  himself,  to  the  fruits  of 
his  toil,  and  to  the  unmolested  pursuit  of  happi- 
ness, in  all  lawful  ways  ;  and  hence,  that  slavery, 
as  existing  in  these  States,  is  a  gigantic  system 
of  evil  and  wrong,  —  are  truths  which  the  moral 
sense  of  men  is  everywhere  proclaiming  with 
much  emphasis  and  distinctness.  If  it  be  not 
so,  what  means  this  note  of  remonstrance,  long 
and  loud,  that  comes  to  our  ears  over  the  Atlan- 
tic wave?  Why  else  did  a  Mohammedan 
prince,*  (to  say  nothing  of  what  nearly  all  Chris- 

*  Mehemet  Ali. 


104  ESSAY. 

tian  governments  have  done,)  put  an  end  to  sla- 
very in  his  dominions  before  he  died  ?  And  how 
else  shall  we  account  for  that  moral  earthquake 
which  has  for  years  been  rocking  this  great  re- 
public to  its  very  centre  ?  One  cannot  thought- 
fully observe  the  signs  of  the  times, —  no,  nor  the 
workings  of  his  own  heart,  methinks,  —  without 
perceiving  that  slavery  is  at  war  with  the  moral 
sense  of  mankind.  If  there  be  any  conscience 
that  approves,  it  must  be  a  conscience  per- 
verted by  wrong  instruction,  or  by  a  vicious 
practice.  And  can  that  be  a  good  institution, 
and  worthy  of  perpetuity,  which  an  unperverted 
conscience  instinctively  condemns  ? 

Third.  The  bad  character  of  slavery  becomes 
yet  more  apparent,  if  we  consider  the  manner  in 
which  it  has  chiefly  originated  and  been  sus- 
tained. Did  God  institute  the  relation  of  master 
and  slave,  as  he  did  the  conjugal  and  parental 
relations  ?  It  is  not  pretended.  In  what,  then, 
did  slavery  have  its  beginning  ?  Doubtless  the 
first  slaves  were  captives,  taken  in  war.  In  prim- 
itive ages,  the  victors  in  war  were  considered  as 
having  a  right  to  do  what  they  pleased  with  their 
captives ;  and  so  it  sometimes  happened  that  they 
were  put  to  death,  and  sometimes  that  they  were 
made  to  serve  their  captors  as  bondmen.  Thus 
slavery  was  at  first  the  incidental  result  of  war. 


ESSAY.  105 

But  as  time  rolled  on,  the  love  of  power  arid  of 
gain  prompted  men  to  make  aggressions  on  their 
weaker  neighbors,  for  the  very  purpose  of  enslav- 
ing them  ;  and,  eventually,  man-stealing  and  the 
slave-trade  became  familiar  facts  in  the  world's 
history.  Upon  these  has  slavery,  for  centuries 
past,  depended  mainly  for  its  continuance.  And, 
although  these  feeders  of  slavery  are  now  by 
Christian  nations  branded  as  piracy  and  strictly 
vetoed,  they  are  far  from  being  exterminated. 
Indeed,  it  seems  to  be  well  understood,  that,  if  all 
commerce  in  slaves,  foreign  and  domestic,  ceases, 
slavery  itself  must  soon  become  extinct. 

Now  if  man-stealing  be  an  act  which  the  Word 
of  God  and  the  moral  instincts  of  men  do  most 
pointedly  condemn,  —  and  I  will  attempt  no  dem- 
onstration of  this  here,  —  what  shall  we  say  of 
that  which  is  its  legitimate  offspring  and  depend- 
ant ?  Far  be  it  from  me  to  affirm,  that,  circum- 
stanced as  our  southern  brethren  are,  it  is  just  as 
criminal  for  them  to  hold  slaves  as  it  would  be 
to  go  now  to  Africa  and  forcibly  seize  them. 
But,  in  the  spirit  of  love,  I  would  ask  my  slave- 
holding  brother,  Can  that  be  a  justifiable  institu- 
tion, and  deserving  to  be  upheld,  which  has  so 
bad  a  parentage  ?  "  Do  men  gather  grapes  of 
thorns  ?  "  "  Who  can  bring  a  clean  thing  out  of 
an  unclean  ?  " 


106  ESSAY. 

Fourth.  There  are,  in  the  Scriptures,  many 
clear  indications  that  slavery  has  not  the  appro- 
bation of  God,  and  hence  has  not  the  stamp  of 
perpetuity  upon  it.  Under  this  head,  let  us  notice 
several  distinct  particulars. 

1.  Had    God  regarded   servitude  as  a  good 
thing,  he  would  not,  in  authoritatively  predict- 
ing its  existence,  have  said,  "  Cursed  be  Canaan; 
a  servant  of  servants  shall  he  be  unto  his  breth- 
ren."    What  God    visits  men   with  as  a  curse 
cannot  be  intrinsically  good  and  beneficial. 

2.  The  judgments  with  which   God  visited 
Egypt  and  her  proud  monarch,  for  refusing  to 
emancipate  the  Israelites,  and  for  essaying  to  re- 
capture them,  when  let  go,  and  the  wages  which 
he  caused  his  people,  when  released,  to  receive 
for  their  hitherto  unrequited  toils,  clearly  evince 
that  he  has  no  complacency  in  compulsory,  un- 
rewarded servitude. 

3.  The  same  thing  is  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  God  has,  by  statute,  provided  expressly  for 
the  protection  and  freedom  of  an  escaped  slave  ; 
but  not  for  the  recovery  of  such  a  fugitive  by  his 
master.      "  Thou    shalt    not    deliver    unto    his 
master,  the  servant  which  is  escaped  from  his 
master   unto   thee :    he    shall   dwell   with  thee, 
even  among  you  in  that  place  which  he  shall 
choose Thou  shalt  not  oppress   him." 


ESSAY.  107 

Now  be  it,  if  you  will,  that  this  statute  had  refer- 
ence only  to  servants  who  should  escape  into  the 
land  of  Israel  from  Gentile  masters  ;  does  it  not 
indicate  a  strong  bias,  in  the  mind  of  God,  to  the 
side  of  freedom,  rather  than  that  of  slavery  ?  And 
does  it  not  establish  the  point,  that,  in  God's  esti- 
mation, one  man  cannot  rightfully  be  deemed 
the  property  of  another  man  ?  Were  it  other* 
wise,  would  not  the  Jew  have  been  required  to 
restore  a  runaway  to  his  pursuing  master,  just  as 
he  was  to  restore  any  other  lost  thing  which  its 
owner  should  come  in  search  of?  Or,  to  say  the 
least,  would  not  the  Israelites  have  been  allowed 
to  reduce  to  servitude  among  themselves  the 
escaped  slave  of  a  heathen  master?  But  how 
unlike  all  this  are  the  actual  requirements  of  the 
statute.  God's  people  must  neither  deliver  up 
the  fugitive  nor  enslave  him  themselves ;  but 
allow  him  to  dwell  among  them  as  a  FREEMAN, 
just  "where  it  liketh  him  best."  And,  in  this 
connection,  how  significant  a  fact  is  it,  that  the 
Bible  nowhere  empowers  the  master  from  whom 
a  slave  had  escaped  to  pursue,  seize,  and  drag 
back  to  bondage  that  escaped  slave. 

4.  That  which  constitutes  the  grand  fountain 
of  slavery,  —  the  forcible,  stealthy  seizure  of  a 
man,  for  the  purpose  of  holding  or  selling  him  as 
a  slave,  —  was,  under  the  Mosaic  dispensation^. 


108  ESSAY. 

punishable  with  death  ;  and  is,  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, named  in  connection  with  the  most  hei- 
nous crimes.  "He  that  stealeth  a  man,  and 
selleth  him,  or  if  he  be  found  in  his  hand,  he  shall 
surely  be  put  to  death."  What  could  more  for- 
cibly exhibit  God's  disapprobation  of  one  of  the 
distinctive  features  of  slavery,  —  compulsion  ? 
What  more  impressively  show  the  value  that  he 
puts  upon  a  man's  personal  independence,  —  his 
right  to  himself?  Now  if  God  doomed  that  man 
to  die  a  felon's  death  who  should  steal  and  sell 
a  fellow  man,  can  it  be  that  he  would  hold  him 
guiltless  who  should  buy  the  stolen  man,  know- 
ing him  to  have  been  stolen  ?  God's  people 
were,  indeed,  allowed  to  "  buy  bondmen  and  bond- 
maids "  of  the  strangers  that  dwelt  among  them, 
and  of  the  surrounding  heathen.  But  were  they 
ever  allowed  to  buy  persons  whom  they  knew  to 
have  been  unlawfully  obtained,  and  offered  for 
sale  in  manifest  opposition  to  their  own  wishes  ? 
If  they  were  not,  —  and,  from  the  statute  just 
referred  to,  it  seems  certain  that  they  were  not, — 
does  American  slavery  derive  countenance  from 
that  which  was  tolerated  in  the  Jewish  church 
and  nation  ?  True,  the  slaves  now  held  as  such 
among  us  were  not  themselves  feloniously  seized 
on  a  foreign  soil,  torn  away  from  kindred,  homes, 
and  country,  and  sold  into  hopeless  bondage  in  a 


ESSAY.  109 

strange  land ;  but  their  sires  and  grandsires  were. 
Man-stealing  is  confessedly  the  stock  out  of  which 
has  sprung,  and  grown  to  its  present  dimensions, 
the  vast  and  overshadowing  Upas  of  American 
slavery;  and  if  the  Bible  brands  that  stock  as 
pestiferous,  must  not  the  entire  tree  partake  of 
the  noxious  influence  ?  Again :  if,  as  competent 
critics  assert,  the  popular  sense  of  the  word  ren- 
dered "  men-stealers,"  in  1  Tim.  i.  10,  be  "  those 
who  deal  in  men  —  literally,  slave-traders,"  then 
trafficking  in  slaves  for  mercenary  ends  is,  by 
Paul,  ranked  among  vices  the  most  abominable  ; 
and  American  slavery  is,  if  possible,  more  point- 
edly condemned  by  that  passage  than  by  the 
statute  found  in  Ex.  xxi.  16.  For  who  does  not 
know  that  trading  in  "  the  persons  of  men  "  has 
ever  been,  and  yet  is,  a  main  pillar  in  the  fabric 
of  slavery  ?  Indeed,  man-stealing  and  slave-trad- 
ing are  to  slave-holding  precisely  what  the  busi-  . 
ness  of  the  distiller  and  of  the  vendor  is  to  the 
vice  of  intemperance.  There  is,  in  either  case, 
a  trio  of  associated  evils ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  say  «- 
which  member  of  either  trio  is  the  most  repulsive 
and  harmful. 

If,  now,  it  be  objected  to  this  argument  from; 
the  Bible,  that  the  Mosaic  institutes  expressly 
recognize  such  a  thing  as  involuntary  servitude,, 
and  prescribe  rules  for  its  regulation,  I  answer : 


110  ESSAY. 

true,  but  the  servitude  thus  recognized  and  regu- 
lated by  statute  was  of  a  far  milder  type  than 
that  which  is  legalized  in  these  American  States. 
For,  1.  It  allowed  the  bondman  a  large  amount 
of  leisure,  or  time  which  he  need  not  devote  to 
his  master's  service ;  2.  It  made  it  possible  for 
him  to  accumulate  a  considerable  amount  of 
property ;  3.  It  placed  him  on  a  perfect  level  with 
his  master,  in  regard  to  religious  privileges; 
4.  It  gave  him  his  freedom  whenever  he  should 
be  so  chastised  as  to  result  in  permanent  injury 
to  his  person  :  thus  operating  as  a  powerful  pre- 
ventive of  inhumanity  in  chastising;  5.  It  re- 
spected the  sanctity  of  the  conjugal  and  parental 
relations,  when  existing  among  bondmen,  and  did 
not  authorize  a  compulsory  severing  of  family 
ties ;  6.  It  made  no  provision  for  the  sale  of  a 
servant  by  his  Jewish  master,  nor  for  any  such 
domestic  commerce  in  the  persons  of  men  as  is 
practised  in  the  southern  States  of  this  Union ; 
7.  It  provided  for  the  periodical  emancipation  of 
all  that  were  in  bondage;  thus  aiming  a  fatal 
blow  at  the  very  existence  of  servitude  in  the 
Hebrew  commonwealth.  I  may  not,  consistently 
with  the  necessary  brevity  of  a  tract  designed 
for  popular  perusal,  go  into  any  demonstration 
<of  the  facts  above  asserted.  For  proof  that 
they  are  facts,  let  my  readers  studiously  examine 


ESSAY.  Ill 

the  Mosaic  books,  and  the  Rev.  A.  Barnes's  "  In- 
quiry into  the  Scriptural  Views  of  Slavery."  I 
see  not  how  any  candid  and  discriminating  in- 
vestigator can  help  being  convinced  that  the  ser- 
vitude which  was  temporarily  tolerated  in  the 
Jewish  church,  was,  in  numerous  respects,  very 
unlike  to  that  which  exists  among  us,  and  far 
less  repulsive. 

But  suppose,  for  argument's  sake,  it  had  been 
just  as  repulsive  a  system  as  ours,  would  the  fact 
of  its  having  been  tolerated  under  the  Jewish 
economy  prove  it  to  be  intrinsically  good,  and 
worthy  of  being  perpetuated  ?  Then,  by  parity 
of  reasoning,  the  good  men  of  ancient  times 
might  safely  have  concluded  that  certain  other 
practices  were  good  and  would  endure,  which 
we  know  were  not  good,  and  were  not  to  last. 
Had  the  question  been  propounded  in  Abraham's 
or  in  David's  day,  whether  polygamy  and  concu- 
binage were  approved  of  God,  and  would  be 
perpetuated  in  the  church,  it  is  probable  that  even 
the  saints  of  those  periods  would  have  responded 
affirmatively.  The  fact  that  God  had  so  long 
allowed  his  people  to  practise  these  things  unre- 
buked,  might,  to  them,  have  seemed  sufficient 
proof  that  these  practices  were  intrinsically 
proper,  and  were  to  rank  among  the  permanent 
fixtures  of  human  society.  But  were  Abraham 


112  ESSAY. 

and  David  now  on  the  earth,  with  what  changed 
feelings  would  they  regard  the  cast-off  system  of 
concubinage  and  a  plurality  of  wives.  Again : 
suppose  the  conjecture  had  been  hazarded,  three 
thousand  years  ago,  that  woman,  from  being  a 
menial  drudge,  or  a  mere  medium  of  bestial  in- 
dulgence, would  one  day  occupy  the  dignified 
position  to  which  Christianity  has  actually  lifted 
her,  would  not  incredulity  have  lurked  in  every 
heart,  and  found  expression  on  every  tongue  ? 
Now  there  are  plain  indications,  not  only  in  the 
Word,  but  the  providences  of  God,  that  he  never 
j  regarded  slavery  with  complacency,  any  more 
than  he  did  polygamy,  concubinage,  or  the  serf- 
dom of  woman ;  and  that  he  never  designed  its 
perpetuity.  Scrutinizing  that  Word  and  those 
providences,  one  needs  no  prophetic  ken  to  enable 
him  to  predict  with  certainty,  that,  when  Christ's 
millennial  reign  is  ushered  in,  contraband  will  be 
inscribed  on  slavery,  as  it  already  has  been  on 
some  other  evils  that  were  once  tolerated,  not 
only  in  society,  but  in  the  church  of  God. 

But  I  shall  be  reminded  here,  that,  when  the 
apostles  were  disseminating  Christianity  in  the 
Roman  empire,  there  prevailed  thoughout  that 
empire  a  system  of  slavery  more  odious  and  op- 
pressive than  ours ;  and  yet  that  both  slave- 
holders and  slaves  were  converted  and  admitted 


ESSAY.  113 

to  the  church,  without  its  affecting  the  relation 
of  master  and  slave ;  that  the  New  Testament 
instructs  the  parties  how  to  demean  themselves 
in  that  relation,  but  nowhere  enjoins  emancipa- 
tion on  the  master,  or  encourages  absconding  or 
non-submission  in  the  slave  ;  in  short,  that  it  no- 
where expressly  condemns  slavery,  or  intimates 
that  its  extermination  was  to  be  expected  or  de- 
sired. In  reply  to  this,  I  would  say,  — 

(1.)  To  infer,  because  the  New  Testament  en- 
joins obedience  on  slaves,  and  makes  no  direct 
attack  on  the  institution  of  slavery,  that  it  there- 
fore sanctions  the  institution,  and  would  have  it 
perpetuated,  is  as  much  a  non  sequitur  as  to  in- 
fer, because  God  enjoins  on  men  subjection  to 
existing  civil  authorities,  whatever  may  be  their 
character,  that  he  as  much  approves  of  a  despotic 
as  of  a  constitutional  government, —  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Ferdinand  of  Naples  as  of  that  of  Vic- 
toria of  England.  Nor  is  it  more  difficult  to 
comprehend  why  God  has,  in  the  Scriptures, 
made  no  direct  assault  on  slavery,  than  it  is  to 
see  why  He  has  not  directly  assailed  govern- 
mental despotisms,  or  expressed  any  preference  for 
one  form  of  government  over  another.  An  ob- 
vious and  far-seeing  wisdom  is  discernible  in 
this,  which  it  behooves  us  to  admire,  and  not 
unfrequently  to  imitate.  Had  the  apostles  or 
8 


114  ESSAY. 

the  Scriptures  openly  denounced  all  absolutism, 
whether  civil  or  domestic,  it  would  have  aroused 
unnecessary  prejudice  and  opposition,  and 
diverted  the  attention  of  men  from  the  grand 
object  aimed  at  in  giving  the  world  a  written 
and  preached  gospel.  God  deemed  it  wiser  to 
reach  these  evils  through  the  slow  but  sure  pro- 
gress of  certain  great  principles  laid  down  in  his 
Word,  than  through  the  medium  of  specific  pro- 
hibitions. 

(2.)  The  fact  that  the  apostles  received  into 
the  church  converts  who  not  only  held  slaves, 
but  held  them  under  a  slave-system  that  was 
awfully  despotic,  was  no  indorsement  on  their 
part  of  that  odious  system,  nor  even  of  the 
slightest  inhumanity  on  the  part  of  a  master 
towards  his  slaves.  It  does,  indeed,  prove  that  a 
man  may  be  a  Christian,  without  ceasing  to  be 
a  slaveholder  in  form ;  but  not  that  a  master 
may  indulge  in  all  the  legal  barbarities  of  the 
system,  and  yet  be  a  Christian.  Merely  to 
sustain  the  relation  of  a  Christian  master  for  the 
good  of  the  slave,  or  from  the  necessity  of  the 
case,  is  one  thing,  while  to  advocate  and  defend 
this  chattel  system,  and  hold  in  bondage  fellow 
human  beings  for  personal  and  selfish  ends,  is 
quite  another  thing.  Nowhere  do  the  Scriptures 
countenance,  or  even  wink  at,  the  least  degree 


ESSAY.  115 

of  inhumanity  or  injustice  in  the  treatment  of 
servants.  So  far  from  this,  they  expressly  enjoin 
it  on  masters  to  "  give  unto  their  servants  that 
which  is  just  and  equal,"  all  the  law  of  disin- 
terested love  would  require  ;  accompanying  the 
injunction  with  the  significant  hint,  that  they 
themselves  have  a  Master,  and  that  with  him 
there  is  "  no  respect  of  persons." 

(3.)  Though  the  Scriptures  do  not  directly 
assail  the  system  of  slavery,  they  indirectly  and 
obviously  condemn  it,  and  that  very  abundantly. 
Slavery  is  indirectly  and  yet  strongly  rebuked  in 
such  passages  of  Scripture  as  the  following: 
"  Wo  unto  him  that useth  his  neigh- 
bor's service  without  wages."  "  Is  not  this  the 
fast  that  I  have  chosen,  ....  to  undo  the 
heavy  burdens,  and  to  let  the  oppressed  go  free, 
and  that  ye  break  every  yoke  ?  "  "  What  doth  the 
Lord  require  of  thee,  but  to  do  justly,  and  to  love 
mercy  ?"...."  Have  we  not  all  one  Father  ? 
Hath  not  one  God  created  us  ?"...."  And 
hath  made  of  one  blood  all  nations  of  men,  for 
to  dwell  on  all  the  face  of  the  earth ;  .  .  .  .  that 
they  should  seek  the  Lord."  .  .  .  .  "  God  is  no  re- 
specter of  persons."  "  The  people  of  the  land 
have  used  oppression,  ....  therefore  have  I 
poured  out  mine  indignation  upon  them."  .... 
"  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself." 


116  ESSAY. 

"  Therefore,  all  things  whatsoever  ye  would  that 
men  should  do  to  you,  do  ye  even  so  to  them." 
It  needs  no  unusual  acuteness  to  see,  that,  were 
the  spirit  of  these  and  kindred  passages  (for  nu- 
merous others  of  the  sort  might  have  been  cited) 
everywhere  acted  out,  slavery  would  as  readily 
vanish,  as  do  the  icebergs  of  the  North,  if  per- 
chance they  float  away  into  milder  latitudes. 

Fifth.  To  the  four  reasons  already  assigned  for 
thinking  that  slavery  has  not  God's  approbation, 
and  ought  not  to  be  perpetuated,  I  will  add  but 
one  more,  —  its  baleful  effects.  (1).  As  it  re- 
spects worldly  thrift,  or  pecuniary  prosperity.  It 
is  a  fact,  that  slavery  exerts  a  depressing  in- 
fluence on  the  business  welfare  of  any  commu- 
nity where  it  prevails ;  and  that,  other  things 
being  equal,  slaveholding  States  can  never  com- 
pete with  free  ones  in  the  item  of  financial 
prosperity.  A  necessary  brevity  forbids  my 
pointing  out  the  causes  of  this  fact ;  but  my 
readers  will,  without  my  aid,  readily  ascertain 
what  they  are.  Suffice  it  to  say,  it  has  become 
a  settled  maxim  of  political  economy,  that  there 
exists  an  antagonism  between  slavery  and  the 
highest  business  prosperity  of  any  people  that 
tolerates  it ;  and  the  southern  States  of  this 
Union  furnish  abundant  confirmation  of  its  truth. 
(2.)  I  will  name  but  one  other  thing,  —  its 


ESSAY.  117 

baneful  influence  on  character  and  morals. 
That  slavery  tends  to  debase  the  character  and 
morals  of  the  slaves  will  scarcely  be  questioned. 
Apart  from  the  ignorance  naturally  resulting 
from  their  condition,  that  condition  powerfully 
tends  to  render  them  sensual,  indolent,  artful, 
mendacious,  stealthful,  and  revengeful.  But  is 
the  bad  moral  tendency  of  the  institution  lim- 
ited to  the  bondmen?  Exerts  it  no  corrupting 
influence  on  the  hearts,  the  habits,  and  morals  of 
the  masters?  Is  it  not  its  legitimate  tendency 
to  foster  in  them  such  vices  as  indolence,  effem- 
inacy, licentiousness,  covetousness,  inhumanity, 
haughtiness,  and  a  supreme  regard  for  self?  Of 
course,  I  do  not  affirm  that  it  uniformly  pro- 
duces these  sad  effects  on  the  character  of  mas- 
ters. So  far  from  this,  there  may  doubtless  be 
found  slaveholders,  who,  in  all  that  adorns  and 
ennobles  human  character,  will  compare  favor- 
ably with  the  very  best  men  at  the  North.  I 
think  it  will  be  conceded,  however,  that  the 
legitimate  tendency  is  to  evil,  and  that  the 
effects  of  slavery  on  the  character  of  its  sustainers 
are,  in  the  main,  disastrous ;  and  that  the  depre- 
ciated state  of  morals  prevailing  where  slavery 
exists  is  mainly  attributable  to  this  as  its  source. 
I  need  not  here  enter  into  detail  Facts  are 
too  well  known  to  make  this  necessary. 


118  ESSAY. 

Thus  have  we  contemplated  several  distinct 
reasons  for  believing  that  slavery  is  no  good 
thing,  —  has  not  the  sanction  of  Jehovah,  —  and 
cannot  with  propriety  be  perpetuated.  Its  con- 
trariety to  nature,  —  its  antagonism  to  the  moral 
sense  of  mankind,  —  its  disgraceful  parentage 
and  manner  of  support,  —  its  condemnation  by 
the  Bible,  —  and  its  disastrous  influence  on 
financial  prosperity,  on  character,  and  on  public 
morals,  —  all  proclaim  that  slavery,  so  far  from 
being  a  good  thing,  is  a  tremendous  curse ;  yea, 
more,  that  it  is  a  stupendous  wrong ;  and 
hence,  that  it  should  be  tolerated  in  the  church 
of  Christ  no  longer  than  the  best  interests  of  all 
concerned  may  render  necessary  for  a  safe  ter- 
mination. 

But  it  may  be,  after  all,  that  I  have  failed  to 
secure  the  assent  of  some  of  my  southern  breth- 
ren to  the  justness  of  the  foregoing  positions  and 
inferences.  It  may  be  that  they  still  regard  the 
system  of  bondage  prevailing  in  their  midst 
as  in  the  main  beneficial,  defensible  from  the 
Bible,  and,  with  some  modifications  perhaps, 
worthy  of  perpetuity.  Well,  brethren,  suppose 
you  do  thus  regard  it ;  and  for  argument's  sake 
suppose,  too,  that  you  may  possibly  be  right,  — 
that  slave-holding  may  be  in  itself  the  harmless 
thing  which  you  deem  it ;  ought  you  not  cheer- 


ESSAY.  119 

fully  to  abandon  it,  in  obedience  to  a  great  Bible 
principle,  —  that  of  refraining  from  things  which 
are  in  themselves  lawful,  or  which  your  con- 
science may  not  condemn,  out  of  regard  to  the 
conscience  of  aggrieved  Christian  brethren,  or  to 
the  prejudices  of  those  whose  salvation  you  would 
not  obstruct?  You  are  aware,  brethren,  that 
this  magnanimous  principle  Paul  both  inculcated 
and  exemplified.  You  are  also  aware  that  a 
large  majority  of  the  Christians  now  living 
regard  your  cherished  institution  as  unjustifiable, 
and  at  variance  with  the  spirit  of  Christianity; 
and,  so  regarding  it,  they  long  for  its  extinction, 
and  are  grieved  with  you  for  cleaving  to  it  so 
tenaciously,  and  refusing  to  concert  measures 
for  its  ultimate  overthrow.  Indeed,  they  are 
more  than  grieved ;  they  are  profoundly  agitated 
by  the  fresh  developments  of  the  iniquitous 
system  which  you  are  helping  to  uphold;  and 
there  seems  no  prospect,  while  that  system  en- 
dures, of  their  becoming  tranquillized.  A  tem- 
pest has  sprung  up  and  is  raging  in  the  church 
of  Christ,  —  to  say  nothing  of  the  civilized 
world,  —  which  seems  not  likely  to  cease  till  its 
cause  be  removed;  and  slavery  is  that  cause. 
Now  I  put  it  to  you,  brethren,  if  here  be  not  an 
opportunity  of  exemplifying,  on  a  broad  scale, 
the  self-denying  and  noble  principle  which  Paul 


120  ESSAY. 

indicates  in  the  words,  "  All  things  are  lawful 
for  me,  but  all  things  are  not  expedient ; "  "  Eat 
not  for  his  sake  that  shewed  it,  and  for  con- 
science' sake :  .  .  .  conscience,  I  say,  not  thine 
own,  but  of  the  other ; "  "  Though  I  be  free 
from  all  men,  yet  have  I  made  myself  servant 
unto  all,  that  I  might  gain  the  more."  Have  it, 
if  you  will,  that  the  brethren  for  whose  sake 
you  are  asked  to  make  this  sacrifice  are  weak 
brethren,  and  then*  consciences  weak.  Your 
obligation  to  make  it  is  none  the  less  on  that 
account ;  for  the  principle  just  adverted  to  con- 
templates cases  of  this  very  sort.  Since  the 
practice  which  grieves  these  weak  brethren  is 
one  that  you  can  probably  abandon  without 
wounding  your  own  conscience,  are  you  at  lib- 
erty to  undervalue  their  conscience  by  persisting 
in  that  which  grieves  them  ? 

But  how  much  weighter  does  this  argument 
become,  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  opposers 
of  slavery,  besides  being  exceedingly  numerous, 

.  have,  many  of  them,  been  eminent,  —  not  merely 
for  a  conscientious  piety,  but  for  talent,  for  re- 
search, for  scholarship,  for  broad  and  compre- 
hensive views  of  things ;  —  and  that  the  list 

(  embraces  distinguished  southern,  as  well  as 
northern  men;  and  men  of  celebrity  in  both 
church  and  state.  There  have  been  found 


ESSAY.  121 

in  the  anti-slavery  ranks,  presidents  and  no- 
ble men,  jurists  and  legislators,  statesmen  and 
divines,  scholars  and  authors,  poets  and  orators. 
And,  still  further  to  enhance  the  dignity  of  the 
cause,  it  should  be  remembered  that  several 
General  Assemblies  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
the  United  States,  together  with  numerous  lesser 
ecclesiastical  bodies,  have  lifted  up  their  voice 
in  opposition  to  slavery,  and  proclaimed  substan- 
tially the  same  views  which  this  humble  Essay 
has  aimed  to  exhibit.  Now  if,  as  we  have  seen, 
a  deferential  regard  should  be  had  to  the  con- 
science of  aggrieved  Christian  brethren,  even 
when  they  are  few  and  feeble-minded,  how  much 
more,  when  the  aggrieved  ones  are  counted  in 
hundreds  of  thousands?  when  theirs  is  an  intel- 
ligent piety  and  an  enlightened  conscience  ?  and 
when,  too,  their  remonstrance  is  backed  up  by  a 
public  sentiment  that  is  wellnigh  unanimous 
through  all  Christendom  ? 

If  now,  in  spite  of  all  these  considerations,  I 
still  have  readers  that  say  in  their  hearts,  slavery 
must  be  perpetuated,  they  will  pardon  me  for  lin- 
gering no  longer  in  the  hope  of  changing  their 
views.  I  would  be  indulged,  however,  in  one 
parting  interrogation.  Has  it  never  occurred  to 
you,  brethren,  that  yours  is,  on  some  accounts, 
a  very  unfavorable  stand-point  from  which  to 


122  ESSAY. 

form  just  and  disinterested  views  of  slavery ;  and 
that  your  very  position  as  slave-holders,  and  your 
long  familiarity  with  the  system  and  its  evils, 
may  have  blinded  you  to  the  magnitude  of  those 
evils,  and  to  the  great  desirableness  of  their  being 
removed  ?  May  it  not  be  that  long  use,  and  self- 
interest,  and  the  love  of  power  and  ease,  have 
conspired  to  warp  your  judgment,  blunt  your 
sensibilities,  and  cause  you  to  view  slavery 
through  a  deceptive  medium  ? 

Having,  as  I  hope,  the  cordial  assent  of  the 
great  mass  of  my  readers,  northern  and  southern, 
to  the  foregoing  argument  against  slavery  and  its 
perpetuity,  we  are  now  prepared  to  advance  to 
the  last  great  division  of  our  subject,  and  to  in- 
quire :  What  are  the  duties,  positive  and  nega- 
tive, which  this  subject  imposes  on  American 
Christians  ?  What  does  it  demand  that  we,  as 
Christians,  should  do,  and  refrain  from  doing? 
This  question  subdivides  itself  thus :  What 
ought  we  northern  and  professedly  anti-slavery 
Christians  to  do,  and  not  do  ?  And,  next,  What 
duties,  positive  and  negative,  does  the  question 
devolve  on  professing  Christians  in  the  slave- 
holding  States  ? 

I.  We  are  to  consider  what  we,  the  northern 
...  ,  and  avowedly  anti-slavery  section  of  the  Ameri- 
can church,  ought,  in  view  of  this  subject,  both 


ESSAY.  123 

to  do,  and  refrain  from  doing.  In  reply  to  the 
question,  What  ought  we  to  do  ?  I  would  say,  — 
1.  It  is  not  only  our  right,  but  duty,  temper- 
ately and  with  Christian  courtesy  to  continue 
to  discuss  this  great  theme,  both  orally  and  with 
the  pen ;  and  especially  to  endeavor  to  bring  the 
truth  into  contact  with  the  mind  and  heart  of  our 
southern  brethren,  —  if,  peradventure,  we  may 
thus  persuade  them  soon  to  cease  their  connec- 
tion with  slavery.  Freedom  of  discussion  is  one 
important  safeguard  of  the  public  weal;  and 
that  must  be  regarded  as  a  bad,  untenable  cause 
which  will  not  bear  the  test  of  a  full  and  free  dis- 
cussion before  the  world.  Free  inquiry,  too,  has 
not  only  preceded  all  great  reformations,  but  has 
been  an  important  instrument  in  bringing  them 
about.  That  great  moral  change  known  as  the 
temperance  reformation  is  but  one  example 
among  many  that  might  be  adduced.  If  slavery 
is  ever  to  be  numbered  in  history  among  the 
things  that  are  past,  it  will  be  by  having  Bible 
light  and  truth  made  to  converge  upon  it,  through 
the  lens  of  free  public  discussion.  Hence,  be- 
lieving as  we  do  that  American  slavery  is  an 
enormous  evil  and  a  gigantic  wrong,  —  a  thing 
with  which  the  church  should  cease  to  have 
connection  as  speedily  as  may  be,  —  as  Christians 
we  may,  we  must,  employ  our  tongues  and  our 


124  ESSAY. 

pens  in  behalf  of  the    enslaved,  till  our  world 
shall  cease  to  contain  such  a  class  of  men. 

2.  We  ought  so  to  exercise  the  right  of  suf- 
frage as  to  resist  the  extension  of  slavery  beyond 
its  present  limits.  I  say  nothing  here  of  the 
political  question  of  State  rights,  or  of  interfering 
with  slavery  in  States  where  it  now  exists.  The 
question  of  authorizing  by  law  the  extension  of 
slavery  into  new  States  and  Territories,  or  of  ad- 
mitting new  States  with  pro-slavery  constitu- 
tions, is  another  and  very  different  thing  from 
that  of  disturbing  the  compact  in  relation  to 
slavery  entered  into  by  the  founders  of  this  re- 
public. The  concessions  in  relation  to  the  slave 
interest  which  our  fathers  made  by  no  means 
oblige  us  to  make  further  concessions,  by  consent- 
ing that  slavery  shall  overstep  her  present  geo- 
graphical limits.  I  know  not  what  others  may 
think ;  but,  for  one,  I  feel  constrained,  by  a  sense 
of  duty  to  God  and  my  country,  so  to  vote  as  to 
have  my  votes  tell  against  the  spread  of  slavery. 
I  must  carry  my  Christian  principles  of  love  and 
humanity  to  the  ballot-box,  as  well  as  elsewhere. 
Though  long  identified  with  one  of  the  political 
parties,  I  have  of  late  felt  myself  bound,  as  a 
voter,  to  ignore  the  ancient  party  lines,  and  even 
to  ignore  all  other  questions,  compared  with  the 
one  great  and  absorbing  one,  Shall  slavery  be 


ESSAY.  125 

allowed  to  have  more  territory,  in  which  to  breed 
and  expand  itself?  In  my  deliberate  judgment, 
all  Christian  patriots  should,  so  far  as  their  votes 
can  speak,  say  to  the  system  of  bondage  existing 
in  our  midst,  "  Hitherto  shalt  thou  come,  but  no 
further,  and  here  shall  thy  proud  waves  be 
stayed."  This  becomes  now  a  moral  and  a  re- 
ligious duty. 

(3.)  In  our  visits  to  the  throne  of  grace,  we 
ought,  with  more  frequency  and  fervor,  "to  re- 
member them  that  are  in  bonds,  as  bound  with 
them."  Assured  that  all  hearts  and  events  are 
at  God's  disposal,  that  he  abhors  oppression,  and 
that  prayer  is  the  Christian's  mode  of  taking  hold 
of  God's  strength,  we  must  make  full  proof  of 
this  as  a  weapon  with  which  to  effect  the  sub- 
version of  slavery.  It  may  be  that  importunate, 
persevering  prayer  will  effect  more  in  behalf  of 
the  enslaved  than  all  other  instrumentalities. 
It  is,  at  least,  quite  certain  that  other  means  will 
prove  inefficacious,  if  this  be  not  superadded. 

But  the  question  we  are  considering  has  a 
negative  as  well  as  positive  side ;  and  we  will 
next  inquire,  what  we  anti-slavery  Christians 
ought  to  refrain  from  doing. 

1.  We  must  not,  in  our  efforts  to  subvert  sla- 
very, indulge  in  an  unchristian  spirit,  or  in  lan- 
guage adapted  needlessly  to  anger  and  alienate 


126  ESSAY. 

those  whom  it  should  be  our  aim  to  win.  A 
cause  that  is  intrinsically  good  may  be  advocated 
in  a  bad  spirit,  or  with  improper  weapons ;  and 
such  may  have  sometimes  been  the  case  with 
ours.  Would  that  all  men  had  ever  borne  it  in 
mind,  that  truth  and  love  are  the  only  weapons 
with  which  to  wage  a  successful  conflict  with 
this  or  any  other  deep-seated  moral  evil. 

2.  We  must  not,  in  our  zeal  for  emancipation, 
allow  mere  feeling  or  benevolent  impulses  par- 
tially to  dethrone  reason ;  and  thus  disqualify  our- 
selves for  taking  impartial  views  of  the  subject, 
or  for  accurately  discriminating  between  truth 
and  error.  There  may  have  been  men  in  the 
anti-slavery  ranks,  with  whom  sympathy  was 
every  thing,  and  reason  —  and  even  the  Bible  — 
comparatively  nothing.  In  obeying  the  injunc- 
tion to  "  remember  them  that  are  in  bonds," 
they  may  have  neglected  to  remember  any  thing 
else.  Slavery  seemed  to  occupy  their  entire  field 
of  vision.  Hence,  not  fully  informed  in  regard 
to  the  actual  condition  of  things  at  the  South, 
they  have  erroneously  supposed  that  the  slave 
codes  prevailing  there  were  the  standard  by 
which  to  judge  of  the  actual  condition  of  the 
slaves,  and  that  all  the  Southern  church  was 
actually  practising  the  barbarities  authorized  by 
those  codes.  As  there  was  no  just  appreciation 


ESSAY.  127 

of  the  actual  conduct  of  masters  towards  their 
servants,  so  there  was  no  allowance  made  for  the 
circumstances  which  conspired  to  render  them 
masters,  nor  for  the  obstacles  which  stand  in  the 
way  of  their  ceasing  to  be  masters.  It  must  be 
admitted,  that  generally,  where  unrighteous  laws 
are  suffered  to  exist,  the  mass  of  the  community 
will  not  be  better  than  the  laws  ;  but  there  are 
exceptions,  —  men  who  intend  to  give  heed  to  a 
higher  law.  So  much  for  allowing  an  amiable 
but  blind  sympathy  to  usurp  that  throne  which 
reason  and  revelation  were  designed  conjointly 
to  occupy.  It  scarcely  need  be  added,  that  these 
ultraisms  have  done  much  to  prejudice  the  anti- 
slavery  cause,  and  bring  it,  in  the  eyes  of  some, 
into  unmerited  contempt.  We  must  wipe  away 
that  reproach,  by  so  conducting  our  warfare  with 
slavery  as  to  evince  that  we  are  neither  men 
of  one  idea,  nor  men  whose  judgment  is  led  cap- 
tive by  their  sensibilities. 

3.  We  must  not,  in  opposing  slavery,  indorse 
the  sentiment,  that  one  cannot  in  any  conceiva- 
ble circumstances  give  credible  evidence  of  piety, 
and  yet  continue  in  form  to  hold  slaves;  that 
being  a  master  is,  in  any  and  in  all  circumstan- 
ces, a  disciplinable  offence  in  the  church  ;  or  that 
it  should,  without  exception,  constitute  a  barrier 


128  ESSAY. 

to  church-membership,  or  to  the  communion  of 
saints  at  Christ's  sacramental  board.  While  we 
believe  that  all  the  great  principles  of  God's 
Word  go  to  subvert  slavery,  and  while  we  are 
constrained  to  regard  the  holding  of  slaves  as 
diminishing  the  evidence  of  a  man's  piety,  and 
thus  far  alienating  his  claims  to  a  good  standing 
in  the  Christian  church,  we  may  nevertheless 
make  exceptions,  and  not  keep  a  man  out  of  the 
church,  or  discipline  him  when  in  it,  merely  be- 
cause he  sustains  temporarily  the  relation  of  mas- 
ter, not  for  selfish  ends,  but,  as  in  rare  cases,  for 
benevolent  reasons.  But  if  a  man  defends  the 
system,  and  takes  away  from  a  fellow  man  ina- 
lienable human  rights,  then  we  may  and  should 
refuse  him  admission,  or  subject  him  to  disci- 
pline, as  the  case  may  be.  But,  obvious  and  im- 
portant as  is  this  distinction,  it  is  one  which  some 
anti-slavery  men  may  have  failed  to  make  ;  and 
that  failure  may  have  prejudiced  or  retarded  the 
cause  of  emancipation.  A  good  cause  suffers  by 
having  a  single  uncandid  statement  or  untenable 
argument  advanced  in  its  support ;  and  the 
friends  of  the  enslaved  must  afford  their  oppo- 
nents no  room  for  saying,  that  their  reasonings 
are  illogical  or  anti-scriptural. 

4.   We  must  not,  in  seeking  the  extinction  of 


ESSAY.  129 

American  slavery,  so  insist  on  its  immediate  abo- 
lition as  to  repudiate  the  responsibility  which  a 
master  owes  to  this  dependent  and  depressed 
class  of  his  fellow  beings ;  but  that  that  end 
be  kept  steadily  in  view,  to  be  accomplished  as 
speedily  as  is  consistent  with  the  best  good  of 
the  parties  concerned.  The  immediate  and  total 
extinction  of  southern  slavery,  if  not  obviously  im- 
possible, is  of  questionable  expediency.  The  upas 
of  American  slavery  has  struck  its  roots  so  deep> 
and  shot  its  branches  so  far,  and  so  interlaced 
itself  with  all  surrounding  objects,  that,  to  have 
it  instantaneously  and  unreservedly  uprooted, 
might  prove,  in  many  cases,  disastrous ;  and,  at 
all  events,  is  not  to  be  expected.  To  say  nothing 
of  other  obstacles  to  the  immediate  abolition  of 
Southern  slavery,  the  highest  good  of  many  of 
the  slaves  makes  it  inexpedient.  Some,  proba- 
bly many  of  them,  need  to  pass  through  an  edu- 
cating process,  —  a  kind  of  mental  and  moral  ap- 
prenticeship, —  in  order  to  their  profiting  largely 
by  the  boon  of  emancipation.* 

*  The  publishers  understand  the  writer  to  mean,  that  the 
working  of  them  without  wages,  —  the  withholding  that 
which  is  just  and  equal,  —  should  be  immediately  and  uni- 
versally abandoned,  and  that  emancipation  should  be  granted 
as  speedily  as  the  slaves  can  be  prepared  to  use  and, 

9 


130  ESSAY. 

II.  We  are  now  to  inquire,  lastly,  what  du- 
ties, positive  and  negative,  this  great  question 
devolves  on  those  Christians  among  whom 
American  slavery  has  its  seat,  or  who  are  per- 
sonally identified  with  it.  Hoping,  brethren,  that 
the  sentiments  thus  far  advanced  are  your  senti- 
ments, I  shall  have  your  further  assent  when 
I  say, 

1.  That  the  extinction,  at  the  earliest  consist- 
ent date,  of  the  system  of  servitude  existing 
among  you,  is  a  result  at  which  you  ought 
steadily  and  strenuously  to  aim.  And,  as  you 
see,  we  base  this  obligation  of  yours,  not  on  the 
assumption  of  any  sinfulness  which  you  may 
sustain  to  slavery,  but  on  the  acknowledged  in- 
justice and  woes,  past,  present,  and  prospective, 
of  the  system  as  a  system,  —  its  contrariety,  as  a 
system,  to  the  fundamental  principles  of  Chris- 
tianity. Did  we  regard  you  as  necessarily  sinners, 

enjoy  their  freedom.  The  right  should  be  acknowledged, 
and  the  needful  means  for  its  security  immediately  used. 
The  writer  does  not  say,  that  holding  men  in  bondage  is  not 
generally  sinful,  nor  that  all  sin  should  not  be  immediately 
repented  of  and  forsaken,  but  only  that  there  may  be  ex- 
ceptions where  for  a  time,  and  under  very  peculiar  circum- 
stances, it  may  not  be  sinful,  and  cannot  consistently  with  the 
greatest  good  be  abandoned,  without  some  previous  means  of 
preparation. 


ESSAY.  131 

if  in  any  sense  you  hold  slaves,  then  the  least  we 
could  ask  of  you  would  be,  that  with  contrition  of 
heart  you  should  instantaneously  cease  to  indulge 
in  this  sin,  for  all  sin  should  be  immediately 
abandoned.  As  it  is,  we  only  ask,  that,  just  as 
fast  as  your  slaves  can  be  prepared  for  freedom, 
and  as  the  providence  of  God  may  put  it  in  your 
power  to  liberate  them,  you  will  do  so.  We  are 
not  so  unwise  as  to  expect  that  the  work  of  ex- 
tinction can  be  accomplished  in  a  day.  We 
know,  too,  that  you  are  not,  in  your  church  capac- 
ity, the  constituted  arbiters  of  the  question  as  a 
question  of  State  policy.  And,  so  long  as  your 
legislatures  and  their  constituencies  are  resolved 
on  maintaining  the  system,  perhaps  you  will  be 
unable  to  effect  as  much  as  you  desire  in  the  way 
of  promoting  its  overthrow.  And  yet,  brethren, 
there  is  a  way  in  which  we  think  you  can,  with 
entire  safety  and  manifest  propriety,  contribute 
largely  and  directly  to  the  extinction  of  American 
slavery.  Would  the  entire  Southern  church  cease 
all  personal  participation  in  slavery,  and  throw 
her  whole  weight  and  influence  into  the  scale  of 
slavery's  complete  subversion,  that  "  consumma- 
tion devoutly  to  be  wished "  would  soon  ensue. 
Slave-holding,  no  longer  practised  or  justified  by 
the  church,  but  discountenanced,  could  not  long 
retain  its  foothold  in  the  State.  Now  if  this  be 


132  ESSAY. 

so,  our  slaveholding  brethren  will  confess  that 
they  are  imperiously  bound,  by  motives  of  Chris- 
tian duty,  to  liberate  their  bondmen  with  all  con- 
sistent speed.  Meantime,  and  as  one  important 
means  of  qualifying  them  for  freedom,  you 
ought, 

2.  To  see  to  it  that  not  only  your  own,  but 
all  the  bondmen  among  you,  —  your  entire 
slave  population,  —  are  furnished  with  the  Bible, 
and  qualified  to  read  and  comprehend  it;  and 
also  with  stated  preaching.  They  need  a 
written  and  preached  gospel,  were  it  only  to  fit 
them  to  exchange,  with  advantage,  a  state  of 
vassalage  for  the  dignity  of  freemen ;  for  all 
experience  proves  that  the  Bible  and  the  pulpit 
are  of  all  instruments  the  best  to  qualify  men 
safely  to  exercise  the  right  of  self-government. 
But  there  is  a  servitude  more  dreadful  by  far 
than  any  domestic  bondage  that  men  have  ever 
groaned  under ;  and  your  slaves  need  the  Bible, 
and  the  Bible  preached,  to  prove  God's  instru- 
ments of  breaking  the  chains  imposed  by  Satan, 
and  making  them  Christ's  freemen.  Before 
God  and  in  prospect  of  eternity,  the  distinctions 
between  the  master  and  his  slave  dwindle  into 
insignificance.  Having  souls  that  are  alike 
impure  and  alike  precious,  alike  remembered 
by  a  dying  Saviour  and  alike  in  need  of  the 


ESSAY.  133 

regenerating  change,  they  stand  alike  in  need 
of  God's  Word,  written  and  preached,  as  the 
Spirit's  instrument  in  renewing  and  sanctifying 
the  soul.  Hence  the  Bible  and  preaching  are 
as  much  the  rightful  inheritance  of  the  slave  as 
of  the  master.  We  rejoice  that  these  truths 
and  the  obligations  resulting  therefrom  are,  to 
some  extent,  recognized  by  southern  Christians ; 
and  that,  in  spite  of  certain  adverse  statutes, 
so  much  is  being  done  there  for  the  spiritual 
well-being  of  the  slaves.  Go  on,  brethren,  in 
the  good  work  of  evangelizing  your  slave  pop- 
ulation ;  in  teaching  them  the  art  of  reading  and 
the  rudiments  of  knowledge;  in  putting  the 
Bible  into  their  hands,  and  affording  them 
stated  opportunities  to  read  it,  and  to  hear  it 
expounded  by  you  and  by  Christ's  ministers. 
Go  on,  we  say,  till  there  be  not  one  southern 
slave,  who,  in  point  of  religious  privileges,  is  not 
on  a  footing  of  equality  with  yourselves.  Pros- 
ecuting this  laudable  work  in  the  spirit  of  love, 
you  will  probably  encounter  no  serious  opposi- 
tion.  The  adverse  but  dead  statutes  referred  to 
will  not,  we  hope,  be  galvanized  into  life,  in  order 
to  oppose  you. 

It  only  remains  that  we  name  a  few  things, 
which  we  trust  our  Southern  brethren  will  unite 
with  us  in  saying  that  they  should  refrain  from 


134  ESSAY. 

doing.  (1.)  You  ought  not  to,  and  we  trust 
.  you  will  not,  betray  impatience  and  irritation, 
whenever  we  of  the  North  attempt  to  press  the 
claims  of  the  enslaved  on  your  attention.  Your 
doing  this,  —  as  you  sometimes  have,  —  seems 
to  indicate,  that,  in  your  opinion,  we  Northern 
Christians  have  no  responsibility  in  regard  to 
slavery  and  its  evils;  and  that  when  we  discuss 
this  theme  we  make  ourselves  "  busybodies  in 
other  men's  matters."  To  the  justness  of  this 
opinion  we  cannot  subscribe.  While  we  dis- 
claim all  right  or  intention  to  break  our  compact 
with  you  as  States,  we  feel  that  American 
slavery  is  a  question  of  too  great  moment  to 
ourselves  and  to  unborn  generations  for  us  to 
have  no  concern  with  or  responsibility  for ;  and 
as  patriots,  as  philanthropists,  as  Christians,  we 
are  constrained  to  do  all  that  we  rightfully  may 
for  the  downfall  of  this  hoary  system  of  wrong 
and  woe.  If  any  of  you  differ  with  us  in  opinion 
on  this  theme,  we  trust  you  will  allow  us  to  dis- 
cuss it  to  our  heart's  content ;  and  that  you  will 
listen  to  our  reasonings  with  Christian  meekness 
and  candor.  Not  to  do  so  will  be  construed  as 
an  evidence  of  intrinsic  weakness  in  your  cause. 
(2.)  You  will  freely  admit,  we  presume,  that 
certain  practices  are  authorized  by  your  slave 
laws,  in  which  you  must  not  indulge  even  so 


ESSAY.  135 

long  as  by  any  necessity  you  hold  slaves. 
Your  slave  codes,  for  example,  do  not  rec- 
ognize the  sanctity  of  family  ties  and  the  do- 
mestic affections  as  existing  among  slaves  ;  but, 
as  Christian  masters,  you  must.  You  doubt- 
less believe,  as  do  we,  that  the  marriage  relation, 
with  ah1  its  rights  and  immunities,  was  as  much 
designed  for  the  negro  as  for  the  white  man; 
that  he,  as  truly  as  the  other,  is  entitled  to  "  cleave 
unto  his  wife,"  unexposed  to  the  danger  of 
man's  putting  asunder  what  God  hath  so  closely 
joined,  that  "  they  are  no  more  twain,  but  one 
flesh."  You  believe,  too,  that  God  united  hus- 
band and  wife  thus  indissolubly,  not  simply  that 
they  might  be  a  help  and  solace  to  each  other  in 
the  toilsome  pilgrimage  of  life,  but  that  the  chil- 
dren with  which  God  should  bless  them  might 
grow  up  under  their  supervision,  and  by  them  be 
qualified  for  a  career  of  usefulness  and  honor. 
Thus  you  believe,  and  believing  thus,  you  will 
not,  we  trust,  counteract  God's  benevolent  de- 
signs, by  countenancing,  in  your  own  practice, 
the  separation  of  husbands  and  wives,  or  of 
parents  and  their  offspring.  We  feel  assured, 
that,  whatever  your  laws  may  aUow,  or  non-pro- 
fessing masters  around  you  may  do,  you  will 
never  ignore  the  conjugal  or  parental  rights  of 
your  servants,  or  indulge  in  any  thing  adapted  to 


136  ESSAY. 

mar  their  domestic  enjoyment.  Were  you  to  do 
so,  we  confess  we  could  not  extend  to  you  "  the 
right  hand  of  fellowship  "  as  brethren  in  Christ 
Were  a  church-member  of  ours  to  practise  thus, 
we  should  regard  him  as  amenable  to  discipline. 
We  should  also  regard  it  as  disciplinable  for  a 
master  to  overwork,  or  brutally  chastise,  or  but 
half  feed  and  clothe  his  servants;  or  to  hold 
slaves  for  mere  purposes  of  gain,  or  to  traffic  in 
them.  None  of  these  inhumanities  could  we 
reconcile  with  the  obligations  of  a  Christian 
profession ;  and  we  confidently  hope  that  in  these 
views  you  will  heartily  concur,  and  that  with 
them  your  practice  will  correspond. 

Christian  brethren  of  the  North  and  the  South ! 
The  question  we  have  been  considering  is  one  of 
vast  moment.  Upon  the  right  disposition  of  it 
are  suspended,  under  God,  interests  of  immeas- 
urable value,  and  which  stretch  far  out  into  the 
unseen  future  of  our  country  and  the  world. 
Coming  ages  and  unborn  generations  are  to  be 
affected,  favorably  or  otherwise,  by  the  decision 
of  this  vexed  question ;  and,  brethren,  unless  I 
misjudge,  its  right  decision  is,  to  a  very  great  ex- 
tent, lodged  in  our  hands.  As  decides  the  Amer- 
ican church,  so,  methinks,  will  decide  the 
American  people.  And  now,  —  may  I  confess 
it  ?  —  I  have  dared  to  hope  that  the  sentiments 


ESSAY.  137 

of  this  Essay  are  not  only  sound,  but  in  unison 
with  the  views  of  the  great  mass  of  American 
Christians.  Are  we  not  agreed  in  this:  that 
American  slavery  is  a  system  of  deep  injustice 
and  wrong,  not  sanctioned  by  the  Word  or  the 
providence  of  God;  fraught  with  incalculable 
mischief  to  the  interests  of  both  masters,  and 
slaves,  and  to  the  social  and  religious  well-being 
of  our  whole  country ;  a  blot  on  the  escutcheon 
both  of  the  nation  and  of  the  church ;  a  weapon 
for  scepticism  to  wield,  and  an  obstacle  to  the 
introduction  of  millennial  glory;  and  hence,  a 
system  which  ought  speedily  to  terminate,  and 
which  all  good  men  should  unitedly  oppose  and 
seek  to  subvert  ?  If  we  are  thus  agreed,  let  us 
join  hands  as  well  as  hearts,  and,  swerving  neither 
to  the  extreme  of  passive  indifference  on  the  one 
hand  nor  to  that  of  erratic  fanaticism  on  the 
other,  in  the  majesty  of  principle  let  us  move 
calmly  onward,  a  phalanx  of  Christian  philan- 
thropists, attempting  naught  but  what  they  are 
assured  God  would  have  them  attempt,  and  em- 
ploying only  such  means  as  are  warranted  by  an 
enlightened  conscience.  Leaning  prayerfully  on 
Him  who  hears  the  sighing  of  the  oppressed,  let 
us  push  vigorously  forward,  and,  though  the  year 
of  jubilee  has  not  yet  fully  come,  be  assured  it 
wiU  come,  —  that  proud  day,  when  not  only 


138  ESSAY. 

"  throughout  all  the  land,"  but  throughout  the 
civilized  world,  liberty  shall  be  proclaimed  "  unto** 
all  the  inhabitants  thereof."     Hasten  its  advent, 
"  O  Thou  that  hearest  prayer,"  and  that  "  de- 
lightest  in  mercy !  "     Amen  and  Amen. 


fc 


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